Abstract
Aim of the study was to determine the influence of classic altitude training on hemoglobin mass (Hb-mass) in elite swimmers under the following aspects: (1) normal oscillation of Hb-mass at sea level; (2) time course of adaptation and de-adaptation; (3) sex influences; (4) influences of illness and injury; (5) interaction of Hb-mass and competition performance. Hb-mass of 45 top swimmers (male 24; female 21) was repeatedly measured (~6 times) over the course of 2 years using the optimized CO-rebreathing method. Twenty-five athletes trained between one and three times for 3–4 weeks at altitude training camps (ATCs) at 2,320 m (3 ATCs) and 1,360 m (1 ATC). Performance was determined by analyzing 726 competitions according to the German point system. The variation of Hb-mass without hypoxic influence was 3.0 % (m) and 2.7 % (f). At altitude, Hb-mass increased by 7.2 ± 3.3 % (p < 0.001; 2,320 m) and by 3.8 ± 3.4 % (p < 0.05; 1,360 m). The response at 2,320 m was not sex-related, and no increase was found in ill and injured athletes (n = 8). Hb-mass was found increased on day 13 and was still elevated 24 days after return (4.0 ± 2.7 %, p < 0.05). Hb-mass had only a small positive effect on swimming performance; an increase in performance was only observed 25–35 days after return from altitude. In conclusion, the altitude (2,320 m) effect on Hb-mass is still present 3 weeks after return, it decisively depends on the health status, but is not influenced by sex. In healthy subjects it exceeds by far the oscillation occurring at sea level. After return from altitude performance increases after a delay of 3 weeks.
References
Ashack R, Farber MO, Weinberger M, Robertson G, Fineberg NS, Manfredi F (1985) Renal and hormonal responses to acute hypoxia in normal individuals. J Lab Clin Med 106:12–16
Bonetti DL, Hopkins WG (2009) Sea-level exercise performance following adaptation to hypoxia: a meta-analysis. Sports Med 39:107–127
Böning D, Mrugalla M, Maassen N, Busse M, Wagner TOF (1988) Exercise versus immersion: antagonistic effects on water and electrolyte metabolism during swimming. Eur J Appl Physiol 57:248–253
Böning D, Maassen N, Jochum F, Steinacker J, Halder A, Thomas A, Schmidt W, Noé G, Kubanek B (1997) After-effects of a high altitude expedition on blood. Int J Sports Med 18:179–185
Böning D, Maassen N, Thomas A, Steinacker JM (2001) Extracellular pH defense against lactic acid in normoxia and hypoxia before and after a Himalayan expedition. Eur J Appl Physiol 84:78–86
Brugniaux JV, Schmitt P, Robach P, Nicolet G, Fouillot J-P, Moutereau S, Lasne F, Pialoux V, Saas P, Chorvot J, Cornolo J, Olsen NV, Richalet J-P (2006) 18 days of “living high, training low” stimulate erythropoiesis and enhance aerobic performance in elite middle-distance runners. J Appl Physiol 100:203–211
Chapman RF, Stray-Gunderson J, Levine BD (1998) Individual variation in response to altitude training. J Appl Physiol 85:1448–1456
Clark SA, Quod MJ, Clark MA, Martin DT, Saunders PU, Gore CJ (2009) Time course of haemoglobin mass during 21 days live high: train low simulated altitude. Eur J Appl Physiol 106:399–406
Cristancho E, Reyes O, Serrato M, Mora MM, Rojas JA, Robinson Y, Boning D (2007) Arterial oxygen saturation and hemoglobin mass in postmenopausal untrained and trained altitude residents. High Alt Med Biol 8:296–306
De Souza MJ (2003) Menstrual disturbances in athletes: a focus on luteal phase defects. Med Sci Sports Exerc 35:1553–1563
Eastwood A, Sharpe K, Bourdon PC, Woolford SM, Saunders PU, Robertson EY, Clark SA, Gore CJ (2012) Within subject variation in hemoglobin mass in elite athletes. Med Sci Sports Exerc 44(4):725–732
Frese F, Friedmann-Bette B (2010) Effects of repetitive training at low altitude on erythropoiesis in 400 and 800 m runners. Int J Sports Med 31:382–388
Friedmann B, Frese F, Menold E, Kauper F, Jost J, Bärtsch P (2005) Individual variation in the erythropoietic response to altitude training in elite junior swimmers. Br J Sports Med 39:148–153
Friedmann-Bette B (2008) Classical altitude training. Scand J Med Sci Sports 18:11–20
Garvican L, Martin D, Quod M, Stephens B, Sassi A, Gore C (2010a) Time course of the hemoglobin mass response to natural altitude training in elite endurance cyclists. Scand J Med Sci Sports 22:95–103
Garvican LA, Martin DT, McDonald W, Gore CJ (2010b) Seasonal variation of haemoglobin mass in internationally competitive female road cyclists. Eur J Appl Physiol 109:221–231
Gore CJ, Hahn AG, Burge CM, Telford RD (1997) VO2max and haemoglobin mass of trained athletes during high intensity training. Int J Sports Med 18:477–482
Gore CJ, Craig N, Hahn A, Rice A, Bourdon P, Lawrence S, Waish C, Stanef T, Barnes P, Parisotto R, Martin D, Pyne D (1998) Altitude training at 2,690 m does not increase total haemoglobin mass or sea level VO2max in world champion track cyclist. J Sci Med Sport 1:156–170
Gore CJ, Parisotto R, Ashenden MJ, Stray-Gundersen J, Sharpe K, Hopkins W, Emslie KR, Howe C, Trout GJ, Kazlauskas R, Hahn AG (2003) Second-generation blood tests to detect erythropoietin abuse by athletes. Haematologica 88:333–344
Gore CJ, Bourdon PC, Woolford SM, Ostler LM, Eastwood A, Scroop GC (2006) Time and sample site dependency of the optimized CO-rebreathing method. Med Sci Sports Exerc 38:1187–1193
Gough CE, Sharpe K, Ashenden MJ, Anson JM, Saunders PU, Garvican LA, Bonetti DL, Gore CJ, Prommer N (2011) Quality control technique to reduce the variability of longitudinal measurement of hemoglobin mass. Scand J Med Sci Sports 21:365–371
Heinicke K, Wolfahrt B, Winchenbach P, Biermann B, Schmid A, Huber G, Friedmann B, Schmidt W (2001) Blood volume and hemoglobin mass in elite athletes of different disciplines. Int J Sports Med 22:504–512
Heinicke K, Heinicke I, Schmidt W, Wolfarth B (2005) A three-week traditional altitude training increases hemoglobin mass and red cell volume in elite biathlon athletes. Int J Sports Med 26:350–355
Hopkins WG (2005) Competitive performance of elite track-and-field athletes: variability and smallest worthwhile enhancements. Sportscience 9:17–20
Levine BD, Sray-Gunderson J (1997) “Living high-training low”: effect of moderate-altitude acclimatization with low-altitude training on performance. J Appl Physiol 83:102–112
Lewis SM (1989) Erythropoiesis. In: Hoffbrand AV, Lewis SM (eds) Postgraduate hematology, 3rd edn. Heinemann, London, pp 1–25
Millet GP, Roels B, Schmitt L, Woorons X, Richalet JP (2010) Combining hypoxic methods for peak performance. Sports Med 40:1–25
Morceau F, Dicato M, Diederich M (2009) Pro-inflammatory cytokine-mediated anemia: regarding molecular mechanisms of erythropoiesis. Mediators Inflamm, Article ID405016, p 11. doi:10.1155/2009/405016
Prommer N, Schmidt W (2007) Loss of CO from the intravascular bed and its impact on the optimised CO-rebreathing method. Eur J Appl Physiol 100:383–391
Prommer N, Schmidt W (2009) Hämoglobinmenge und Sport. Dtsch Z Sportmed 60:293–294
Prommer N, Sottas PE, Schoch C, Schumacher YO, Schmidt W (2008) Total hemoglobin mass-a new parameter to detect blood doping? Med Sci Sports Exerc 40:2112–2118
Prommer N, Thoma S, Quecke L, Gutekunst T, Völzke C, Wachsmuth N, Niess A, Schmidt W (2010) Total hemoglobin mass and blood volume of elite Kenyan runners. Med Sci Sports Exerc 42:791–797
Rice L, Ruitz W, Driscoll T, Whitley CE, Tapia R, Hachey DL, Gonzales GF, Alfrey CP (2001) Neocytolysis on descent from altitude: a newly recognized mechanism from the control of red cell mass. Ann Intern Med 134:652–656
Robertson EY, Saunders PU, Pyne DB, Aughey RJ, Anson JM, Gore CJ (2010) Reproducibility of performance changes to simulated live high/train low altitude. Med Sci Sports Exerc 42:394–401
Sawka MN, Convertino VA, Eichner ER, Schnieder SM, Young AJ (2000) Blood volume: importance and adaptations to exercise training, environmental stresses, and trauma/sickness. Med Sci Sports Exerc 32:332–348
Schmidt W, Heinicke K, Rojas J, Gomez JM, Serrato M, Mora M, Wolfarth B, Schmid A, Keul J (2002) Blood volume and hemoglobin mass in endurance athletes from moderate altitude. Med Sci Sports Exerc 34:1934–1940
Schmidt W, Prommer N (2005) The optimised CO-rebreathing method: a new tool to determine total haemoglobin mass routinely. Eur J Appl Physiol 95:486–495
Schmidt W, Prommer N (2008) Effects of various training modalities on blood volume. Scan J Med Sci Sports 18:57–69
Schmidt W, Prommer N (2010) Impact of alterations in total hemoglobin mass on VO2max. Exerc Sport Sci Rev 38:68–75
Schmidt W, Völzke C, Wachsmuth N, Wolfarth B, Schmidt-Trucksäss A, Steinacker J, Treff G, Gundersen J, Eastwood A, Prommer N (2011) Variation of hemoglobin mass in elite Endurance athletes. Med Sci Sports Exerc 43(5 Supplement):437
Schoene RB, Robertson HT, Pierson DJ, Peterson AP (1981) Respiratory drives and exercise in menstrual cycles of athletic and nonathletic women. J Appl Phys 50:1300–1305
Schumacher YO, Ahlgrim C, Ruthardt S, Pottgiesser T (2008) Hemoglobin mass in an elite endurance athlete before, during, and after injury-related immobility. Clin J Sport Med 18:172–173
Siebenmann C, Robach P, Jacobs RA, Rasmussen P, Nordsborg N, Diaz V, Christ A, Olsen NV, Maggiorini M, Lundby C (2012) “Live high-train low” using normobaric hypoxia: a double-blinded, placebo-controlled study. J Appl Physiol 112:106–117
Trewin CB, Hopkins WG, Pyne DB (2004) Relationship between world-ranking and Olympic performance of swimmers. J Sports Sci 22:339–345
Weil JV, Jamieson G, Brown DW, Grover RF, Balchum OJ, Murray JF (1968) The red cell mass—arterial oxygen relationship in normal man. J Clin Investig 47:1627–1639
Acknowledgments
The project was financially supported by the World-Anti-Doping-Agency (WADA, grant no. 05A5FS) and the German Federal Institute of Sports Sciences (BISp, grant no. IIA1-070309/08). We thank all of the swimmers and their trainers for their excellent compliance. We especially acknowledge the cooperation with Ørjan Madsen, the head coach and technical director of the German swimming federation. We would also like to thank the administration and the staff of the Frankfurt Airport Hospital for providing their laboratory as well as the medical head of the Olympic Centre Heidelberg Prof. Dr. Friedmann-Bette, and of the IAT Leipzig, Dr. Berbalk.
Conflict of interest
No conflict of interests.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Communicated by Guido Ferretti.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Wachsmuth, N.B., Völzke, C., Prommer, N. et al. The effects of classic altitude training on hemoglobin mass in swimmers. Eur J Appl Physiol 113, 1199–1211 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00421-012-2536-0
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00421-012-2536-0