Summary of included studies investigating reliability
| Study | Participants | Inclusion–exclusion criteria | Study design | Tests investigated |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Alonso et al36 | N=53 (38M, 15F) Age: 24.3±8.5 years (12–52) Time between injury and test: 34.2±125 days, median 5 60.4% tested within 7 days of injury All involved in a ball sport | Excluded if: ▸ Open wound in the area of the lower leg and ankle ▸ Fracture of the tibia or fibula ▸ Ankle pain of non-mechanical origin ▸ Any condition that might be exacerbated by test procedures | 9 physiotherapists, 2 clinics Experience in sports injuries 1–11 years with average of 5 years Training session for the 4 tests First rater was participant's therapist. Second rater blinded to results. Results independently documented Tests performed at first consultation during routine examination | Squeeze test Dorsiflexion with compression test External rotation test Ligament palpation |
| Beumer et al26 | N=12 3 with suspected chronic syndesmosis injury 9 healthy subjects with asymptomatic ankles | Not defined | Participants sat behind a curtain with exposure only of the lower legs Both legs were examined twice in a different order by 7 examiners (4 orthopaedic surgeons, 3 orthopaedic registrars) Participants did not speak and indicated pain by tapping on a wooden board then pointing to the place where pain was felt Injury diagnosis based on medical history, physical examination and diagnostic imaging | Squeeze test Cotton test Fibula translation External rotation stress test Anterior drawer Dorsiflexion range of motion |