Skip to main content
Log in

Applied Physiology of Cross-Country Skiing

  • Review Article
  • Published:
Sports Medicine Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Summary

Cross-country ski racing has evolved rapidly in recent years. Of particular interest has been the development and proliferation of the faster freestyle or skating techniques. In spite of changes in technique and equipment, the fact that elite cross-country ski racers have some of the highest aerobic power values reported for endurance athletes has not changed. Successful ski racers have higher percentages of slow twitch muscle fibres and higher anaerobic thresholds, but lower anaerobic power scores than Alpine skiers. Crosscountry skiers are also lean, as are distance runners. The absolute bodyweight of the ski racer, however, is much more variable than that of distance runners. Since light skiers will have an advantage on steep uphill courses and heavier skiers will be favoured by level, downhill, and less steep uphill courses, the variability of courses available in international competition explains why successful skiers are so variable with respect to bodyweight. The physiological characteristics of the elite skier are a result of both genetics and adaptation to rigorous multiyear, year-round training programmes. Identification of systematic procedures for specifically challenging the physiological parameters which are requisite for ski racing are being examined. Investigation of ventilatory and lactate thresholds as well as heart rate as parameters for quantifying training intensity is of particular interest at this time.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Åstrand PO, Rodahl K. Textbook of work physiology, 3rd ed., McGraw-Hill, Inc., New York, 1986

    Google Scholar 

  • Beaver W, Wasserman K, Whipp BJ. A new method for detecting anaerobic threshold by gas exchange. Journal of Applied Physiology 60: 2020–2027, 1986

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bergh U. Physiology of cross-country ski racing, Human Kinetics, Champaign, 1982

    Google Scholar 

  • Bergh U. The influence of body mass in cross-country skiing. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 19: 324–331, 1987

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bompa TO. Theory and methodology of training, Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company, Dubuque, 1983

    Google Scholar 

  • Conconi F, Ferrari M, Giorgio P, Ziglio G, Droghetti P, et al. Determination of the anaerobic threshold by a noninvasive field test in runners. Journal of Applied Physiology 52: 869–873, 1982

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Costill DL, Thomason H, Roberts E. Fractional utilisation of the aerobic capacity during distance running. Medicine and Science in Sports 5: 248–252, 1973

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dal Monte A, Fucci S, Leonardi LM, Trozzi V. An evaluation of the diagonal stride techniques in cross country skiing. In Matsui & Kobayaski (Eds) Biomechanics VIII-B, pp. 851–855, University Park Press, Baltimore, 1981

    Google Scholar 

  • Dorsen PJ. Overuse injuries from Nordic ski skating. Physician and Sportsmedicine 14: 34, 1986

    Google Scholar 

  • Droghetti P, Borsetto C, Casoni I, Cellini M, Ferrari M, et al. Noninvasive determination of the anaerobic threshold in canoeing, cross-country skiing, cycling, roller and ice skating, rowing, and walking. European Journal of Applied Physiology 53: 299–303, 1985

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Endestad A, Teaford J. Skating for cross-country skiers, Leisure Press, Champaign, 1987

    Google Scholar 

  • Fox EL, Bowers RW, Foss ML. The physiological basis of physical education and athletics, Saunders College Publishing, Philadelphia, 1988

    Google Scholar 

  • Gagnon M. Dynamic characteristics of alternative strides in crosscountry skiing. Canadian Journal of Applied Sport Sciences 5: 49–59, 1980

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gregory LW. The development of aerobic capacity: a comparison of continuous and interval training. Research Quarterly 50: 199–206, 1979

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hagberg JM, Geise MD, Schneider KB. Comparison of the three procedures for measuring V̇O2 max in competitive cyclists. European Journal of Applied Physiology 39: 47–52, 1978

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hanson JS. Maximal exercise performance in members of the US Nordic ski team. Journal of Applied Physiology 35: 592–595, 1973

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hanson JS. Decline of physiological training effects during the competitive season in members of the US. Nordic ski team. Medicine and Science in Sports 7: 213–216. 1975

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Haymes EM, Dickinson A. Characteristics of elite male and female ski racers. Medicine and Science in Sports 12: 153–158, 1980

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hickson RC, Hagberg JM, Eksani AA, Holloszy JO. Time course of the adaptive response of aerobic power and heart rate to training. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 13: 17–20, 1981

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Higgins J, Bainbridge C, Johnson S, Eisenman P. A comparison of plasma lactate at two exercise intensities during diagonal versus skating style roller skiing in elite cross-country skiers. Abstract. Southwest American College of Sportsmedicine, 1988

    Google Scholar 

  • Humen D, Boughner DR. Evaluation of commercially available heart rate monitors. Canadian Medical Association Journal 131: 585–588, 1984

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jette M, Thoden JS, Spence J. The energy expenditure of a 5km cross-country ski run. Journal of Applied Physiology 20: 425–431, 1976

    Google Scholar 

  • Karlsen T, Patterson R. Strength and imitation training for XC freestyle skiing, US Ski Team, Park City, UT, 1986

    Google Scholar 

  • Karlsson J. Profiles of cross-country and alpine skiers. Clinics in Sports Medicine 3: 245–271, 1984

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Karlsson J, Jacobs I. Onset of blood lactate accumulation during muscular exercise as a threshold concept. I. Theoretical considerations. International Journal of Sports Medicine 3: 190–201, 1982

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Karvonen J, Chwalbinska-Moneta J, Saynajakangas S. Comparison of heart rates measured by ECG and microcomputer. Physician and Sportsmedicine 12: 65–69, 1984

    Google Scholar 

  • Katch V, Weltman A, Sady S, Freedson P. Validity of the relative per cent concept for equating training intensity. European Journal of Applied Physiology 39: 219–227, 1978

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kindermann W, Simon G, Keul J. The significance of the aerobic-anaerobic transition for the determination of workload intensities during endurance training. European Journal of Applied Physiology 42: 25–34, 1979

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Knuttgen HG, Nordesjo LO, Ollander B, Saltin B. Physical conditioning through interval training with young male adults. Medicine and Science in Sports 5: 220–226, 1973

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Leger L, Thivierge M. Heart rate monitors: validity, stability, and functionality. Physician and Sportsmedicine 16: 143–151, 1988

    Google Scholar 

  • Lyons JW, Porter RE. Cross-country skiing, a beginning sport? Journal of the American Medical Association 239: 334–335, 1978

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • MacDougall JD. The anaerobic threshold: its significance for the endurance athlete. Canadian Journal of Applied Sport Science 2: 137–140, 1977

    Google Scholar 

  • MacDougall JD, Hughson JR, Moroz JR. The energy cost of crosscountry skiing among elite competitors. Medicine and Science in Sports II: 270–273, 1979

    Google Scholar 

  • Mackova E, Bass A, Sprynarova S, Teisinger J, Vondra K, et al. Enzyme activity patterns of energy metabolism in skiers of different performance levels (M. Quadriceps Femoris). European Journal of Applied Physiology 48: 315–322, 1982

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mackova EV, Melichna J, Sprynarova S, Bass A, Teisinger J, et al. Muscle enzyme activities and fibre composition (M. Vastus Lateralis) and efficiency of the cardiorespiratory system in crosscountry skiers. Physiologia Bohemoslovaca 32: 272–280, 1983

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Margaria R. Positive and negative work performance and their efficiencies in human locomotion. International Zeitschrift für Angewandte Physiologie 25: 339–351, 1968

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Millerhagen JO, Kelley JM, Murphy RJ. A study of combined arm and leg exercise with application to nordic skiing. Canadian Journal of Applied Sport Sciences 13: 92–97, 1986

    Google Scholar 

  • Niinimaa V, Dyon M, Shephard RJ. Performance and efficiency of intercollegiate cross-country skiers. Medicine and Science in Sports 19: 91–93, 1979

    Google Scholar 

  • Norman R, Caldwell G, Komi P. Differences in body segment energy utilisation between world-class skiers and recreational cross-country skiers. International Journal of Sports Biochemistry 1: 253–262, 1985

    Google Scholar 

  • Orvanova E. Physical structure of winter sports athletes. Journal of Sports Sciences 5: 197–248, 1987

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Parks RM. Biomechanics and technique analysis of classic and freestyle nordic skiing. Clinics in Podiatric Medicine and Surgery 3: 679–703, 1986

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pechar GS, McArdle WD, Katch FI, Magel JR, Delucia J. Specificity of cardiorespiratory adaptation to bicycle and treadmill training. Journal of Applied Physiology 42: 753–756, 1974

    Google Scholar 

  • Pollock ML. Submaximal and maximal working capacity of elite distance runners. Annals of New York Academy of Science 301: 310–322, 1977

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Poole DC, Gaesser GA. Response of ventilatory and lactate thresholds to continuous and interval training. Journal of Applied Physiology 58: 1115–1121, 1985

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ruhling R, Storer T. Physiological responses to on-snow crosscountry ski training. In Teraud & Gros (Eds) Science in skiing, skating and hockey, Academic Publishers, Delmar, CA, 1979

    Google Scholar 

  • Rusko H. The effect of training on aerobic power characteristics of young cross-country skiers. Journal of Sports Sciences 5: 273–286, 1987

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rusko H, Havu M, Karvinen E. Aerobic performance capacity in athletes. European Journal of Applied Physiology 38: 151–159, 1978

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rusko H, Rahkila H, Karvinen E. Anaerobic threshold, skeletal muscle enzymes and fiber composition in young female crosscountry skiers. Acta Physiologica Scandinavica 108: 263–268, 1980

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Saltin B, Åstrand PO. Maximal oxygen uptake in athletes. Journal of Applied Physiology 23: 353–358, 1967

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sinning WE, Cunningham LN, Racaniello AP, Sholes JL. Body composition and somatotype of male and female Nordic skiers. Research Quarterly 48: 741–749, 1977

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Skaard H. Skiskating moves the borders of skiing, Norges Idrett shoyshole, 1985

    Google Scholar 

  • Sprynarova S, Bass A, Mackova E, Vondra K, Vitek V, et al. Changes in maximal aerobic power, aerobic capacity, and muscle enzyme activities at two stages of the annual training cycle in ski-runners. European Journal of Applied Physiology 44: 17–23, 1980

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Stray-Gundersen J, Ryschon T. Economy of ‘skating’ versus classic rollerskiing. Abstract. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 19: S46, 1987

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Taipale A, Kennedy G. The Finnish ski training system, FS Sports, St. Paul, 1986

    Google Scholar 

  • Veicsteinas A, Ferretti G, Margonato V, Rosa G, Tagliabue D. Energy cost of and energy sources for alpine skiing in top athletes. Journal of Applied Physiology 56: 1187–1190, 1984

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Waser J, Nigg BM. The diagonal step in the flat by cross country ski racers. Abstract. In Asmussen & Jorgensen (Eds) Biomechanics VI-B 87, University Park Press, Baltimore, 1978

    Google Scholar 

  • Wasserman K. The anaerobic threshold measurement to evaluate exercise performance. American Review of Respiratory Disease 129: S35–S40, 1984

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wenger HA, Bell GJ. The interactions of intensity, frequency and duration of exercise training in altering cardiorespiratory function. Sports Medicine 3: 346–356, 1986

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wilmore JH, Brown CH. Physiological profiles of women distance runners. Medicine and Science in Sport 6: 178–181, 1974

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zupan M, Shepherd T, Eisenman P. Physiological responses to nordic tracking and skating in elite cross-country skiers. Medicine and Science in Sport and Exercise 20: S81, 1988

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Eisenman, P.A., Johnson, S.C., Bainbridge, C.N. et al. Applied Physiology of Cross-Country Skiing. Sports Med 8, 67–79 (1989). https://doi.org/10.2165/00007256-198908020-00001

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.2165/00007256-198908020-00001

Keywords

Navigation