Skip to main content
Log in

Physiological and Biomechanical Aspects of Orienteering

  • Review Article
  • Published:
Sports Medicine Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Summary

Orienteering is an endurance running event which differs from other running sports both in its cognitive element and in the type of terrain encountered. The demands of overcoming this terrain are not manifest in significant differences between orienteers and road runners in somatotype, though elite female orienteers have consistently been shown to have higher levels of adiposity (>19%) than elite road runners. High aerobic power in orienteers (up to 63 and 76 ml/kg/min in women and men, respectively) is coupled with lower anaerobic performance. While leg strength is generally not high when compared with other athletic specialities, female orienteers have relatively good leg flexion strength.

The energy cost of running is greatly increased in rough terrain. Oxygen cost was 26% higher while running in a forest when compared with road running. Biomechanical differences in stride pattern contribute towards this increased demand. Despite the high energy demands during competition, orienteers pace themselves such that their mean heart rate remains within the range of 167 to 172 beats/min, despite large fluctuations. The rough terrain encountered in orienteering results not only in a high energy cost but also in a higher incidence of sport-specific injuries, particularly to the ankle. Minor injuries such as cuts and bruises are common during competition.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Disley J. Orienteering. London: Faber Paperbacks, 1978

    Google Scholar 

  2. Jensen K, Franch J, Kärkkäinen O, et al. Field measurements of oxygen uptake in elite orienteers during cross-country running using telemetry. Scand J Med Sci Sports 1994; 4: 234–8

    Article  Google Scholar 

  3. Garbutt G, Boocock MG, Reilly T, et al. Running speed and spinal shrinkage in runners with and without low back pain. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1990; 22: 769–72

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  4. Seliger V. Heart rate as an index of physical load in exercise. Scripta Medica 1968; 41: 231–40

    Google Scholar 

  5. Creagh U, Reilly T. An ergonomic evaluation of the physiological stress of elite female orienteering. In: Robertson SA, editor. Contemporary ergonomics. London: Taylor and Francis, 1994: 382–7

    Google Scholar 

  6. Bangsbo J. The physiology of soccer: with special reference to intense intermittent exercise. Copenhagen: HO+Storm, 1993

    Google Scholar 

  7. Karppinen T, Laukkanen R. Heart rate analysis in orienteering training and competitions before and during WOC 1993. Sci J Orienteering 1994; 5: 10

    Google Scholar 

  8. Peck G. Measuring heart rate as an indicator of physiological stress in relation to orienteering performance. Sci J Orienteering 1990; 6: 26–42

    Google Scholar 

  9. Bird SR, Bailey R, Lewis J. Heart rates during competitive orienteering. Br J Sports Med 1993; 27: 53–7

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  10. Davies CTM. Effects of wind assistance and resistance on the forward motion of runner. J Appl Physiol 1980; 48: 702–9

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  11. Pugh LGCE. The influence of wind resistance in running and walking and the mechanical efficiency of work against horizontal or vertical forces. J Physiol 1971; 213: 255–76

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  12. Zamparo P, Perini R, Orizio C, et al. The energy cost of walking or running on sand. Eur J Appl Physiol 1992; 65: 183–7

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  13. Soule RG, Goldman RF. Terrain coefficients for energy cost prediction. J Appl Physiol 1972; 32: 706–8

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  14. Creagh U, Reilly T. The energy cost of running in forest terrain [abstract]. First Annual Congress: Frontiers in Sport Science: the European Perspective; 1996 May 28–31; Nîce: 78–9

  15. Lenz T. The behaviour of heart rate and lactic acid in orienteers in treadmill ergometry and branch-specific running training. Sci J Orienteering 1987; 3: 15–23

    Google Scholar 

  16. Creagh U. Physiological stresses in female orienteering [PhD thesis]. Liverpool: Liverpool John Moores University, 1996

    Google Scholar 

  17. McArdle WD, Katch FI, Katch VL. Exercise physiology: energy, nutrition and human performance, 3rd ed. London: Lea & Febiger, 1991

    Google Scholar 

  18. Nelson RC, Dillman CJ, Lagasse P, et al. Biomechanics of overground versus treadmill running. Med Sci Sports 1972; 4: 233–40

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  19. Williams K.R. Biomechanics of running. Exerc Sports Sci Rev 1985; 13: 389–441

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. Elliot BC, Blanksby BA. A cinematographic analysis of overground and treadmill running by male and females. Med Sci Sports 1976; 8: 84–7

    Article  Google Scholar 

  21. McMahon TA, Greene PR. The influence of track compliance on running. J Biomech 1979; 12: 893–904

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  22. Dresel U. Lactate acidosis with different stages in the course of a competitive orienteering performance. Sci J Orienteering 1985; 1:4–13

    Google Scholar 

  23. Ranucci M, Grassi G, Miserocchi G. Anaerobic threshold in orienteers as an index of the aerobic-anaerobic relative contributions to the total power output: a comparison with other endurance sports. Sci J Orienteering 1986; 2: 124–33

    Google Scholar 

  24. Johansson C, Tsai L, Hultman E, et al. Restoration of anabolic deficit and muscle glycogen consumption in competitive orienteering. Int J Sports Med 1990; 11: 204–7

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  25. Kannus P, Heikki A, Järvinen M, et al. Computerized recording of visits to an outpatient sports clinic. Am J Sports Med 1987; 15,79–85

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  26. Ekstrand J, Roos H, Tropp H. The incidence of ankle sprains in orienteering. Sci J Orienteering 1990; 6: 3–9

    Google Scholar 

  27. Folan J. Orienteering injuries. Br J Sports Med 1982; 16: 236–40

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  28. Hintermann B, Hintermann M. Injuries in orienteering: a study of the 1991 Swiss 6-days orienteering event. Sci J Orienteering 1992; 8: 72–8

    Google Scholar 

  29. Korpi J, Haapanen A, Svahn T. Frequency, location and types of orienteering injuries. Scand J Sports Sci 1987; 9: 53–6

    Google Scholar 

  30. McLean I. First aid for orienteering in Scotland. Sci J Orienteering 1990; 2: 55–63

    Google Scholar 

  31. Maughan RJ, Miller JDB. Incidence of training-related injuries among marathon runners. Br J Sports Med 1983; 17: 162–5

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  32. Sperryn PN, Restan L. Podiatry and the sports physician: an evaluation of orthoses. Br J Sports Med 1983; 17: 129–34

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  33. Kujala UM, Nylund T, Taimela S. Acute injuries in orienteers. Int J Sports Med 1995; 16: 122–5

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  34. Laukkanen R, Heinonen A, Kannus P, et al. Training profile, physical performance capacity and competition success of Finnish female elite orienteering. Sci J Orienteering 1991; 7: 5–11

    Google Scholar 

  35. Lusa S, Lonka H. The effects of systematic strength training on the physical performance of orienteers. Sci J Orienteering 1988; 4: 56–7

    Google Scholar 

  36. Gärderud I, Hammarberg J, Larsson Å, et al. The effects of a branch-specific strength-training for orienteers. Sci J Orienteering 1985; 1:51–2

    Google Scholar 

  37. Johansson C, Gerdle B, Lorentzen R, et al. Fatigue and endurance of lower extremity musles in relation to running velocity at OBLA in male orienteers. Acta Physiol Scand 1987; 131: 203–9

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  38. Johansson C. Training, injury and disease in senior and junior elite orienteers. Sci J Orienteering 1988; 4: 3–13

    Google Scholar 

  39. Johannsen F, Stallknecht B. Training, injuries and infections among elite orienteers. Scand J Med Sci Sports 1993; 3:273–8

    Article  Google Scholar 

  40. Gleeson M, Blannin AK, Walsh NP. Overtraining, immuno-suppression, exercise-induced muscle damage and anti-inflammatory drugs. In: Reilly T, Orme M, editors. The clinical pharmacology of sport and exercise. Amsterdam: Elsevier Science BV, 1997:47–61

    Google Scholar 

  41. Beidleman BA, Puhl JL, de Souza MJ, et al. Energy balance in female distance runners. Am J Clin Nutr 1995; 61: 303–11

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  42. Hagarty P, McGaw BA. Energy expenditure of elite female athletes measured by the doubly-labelled water method. Proc Nutr Soc 1987; 47: 35

    Google Scholar 

  43. Schultz LO, Alger S, Harper I, et al. Energy expenditure of elite female runners measured by respiratory chamber and doubly labeled water. J Appl Physiol 1992; 72: 23–8

    Google Scholar 

  44. Stager JM, Lindeman A, Edwards J. The use of doubly labelled water in quantifying energy expenditure during prolonged activity: personal observations. Sports Med 1995; 19: 166–72

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  45. Erp-Baart AMJ, van Saris WHM, Binkhorst RA, et al. Nationwide survey on nutritional habits in elite athletes, pt 1: energy, carbohydrate, protein and fat intake. Int J Sports Med 1989; 10: S17–S21

    Article  Google Scholar 

  46. Creagh U, Reilly T. A multivariate analysis of kinanthropo-metric profiles of elite female orienteers. J Sports Med Phys Fit 1995; 35: 59–66

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  47. Knowlton RG, Ackerman KJ, Fitzgerald PI, et al. Physiological and performance characteristics of United States championship class orienteers. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1980; 12: 164–9

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  48. Barrell GV, Cooper PJ. Somatotype characteristics of international orienteers. Percept Mot Skills 1982; 54: 767–70

    Article  Google Scholar 

  49. Mero A, Rusko H. Psychophysical performance of orienteers in graded and steady state exercise tests. Sci J Orienteering 1987; 3: 31–42

    Google Scholar 

  50. Bale P, Rowell S, Colley G. Anthropométric and training characteristics of female marathon runners as determinants of distance running performance. J Sports Sci 1985; 3: 115–26

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  51. Wilmore JH, Brown CH, Davis JA. Body physique and composition of the female distance runners. Ann New York Acad Sci 1977; 301: 764–76

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  52. Graves JE, Pollock ML, Sparling PB. Body composition of elite female distance runners. Int J Sports Med 1987; 8: 96–102

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Helgerud J. Maximal oxygen uptake, anaerobic threshold and running economy in women and men with similar performance levels in marathons. Eur J Appl Physiol 1994; 68: 155–61

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  54. Reilly T, Rothwell J. Adverse effects of overtraining in females. In: McGaw ED, editor. Contemporary ergonomics 88. London: Taylor & Francis, 1988: 316–21

    Google Scholar 

  55. Haymes EM, Dickinson AL. Characteristics of elite male and female ski racers. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1980; 12: 153–8

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  56. Reilly T, Borrie A. Physiology applied to field hockey. Sports Med 1992; 14: 10–26

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  57. Bale P, Colley E, Mayhew JL. Relationships among physique, strength and performance in women students. J Sports Med Phys Fitness 1985; 25: 98–103

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  58. De Garay AL, Levine L, Carter JEL. Genetic and anthropological studies of Olympic athletes. New York: Academic Press, 1974

    Google Scholar 

  59. Pollock ML, Jackson AS, Pate RR. Discriminant analysis of physiological differences between good and elite distance runners. Res Q Exerc Sport 1980; 56: 251–5

    Google Scholar 

  60. Houston ME, Green HJ. Physiological and anthropometric characteristics of elite Canadian ice hockey players. J Sports Med Phys Fit 1976; 16: 123–8

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  61. Rhodes EC, Mosher RE, McKenzie DC, et al. Physiological profiles of the Canadian Olympic soccer team. Can J Appl Sport Sci 1986; 11:31–6

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  62. Creagh U, Reilly T. Fitness profiles of elite female orienteers. J Sports Sci 1997; 15:43

    Google Scholar 

  63. Saltin B, Adams D. Physiological work capacity in orienteering. Huddinge: IOF Report, 1980: 2

    Google Scholar 

  64. Åstrand PO, Rodahl K. Textbook of work physiology: physiological bases of exercise, 3rd ed. London: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1986

    Google Scholar 

  65. Evangelista M, Pandolfi O, Fanton F, et al. A functional model of female soccer players: analysis of functional characteristics. J Sports Sci 1992; 10: 165

    Google Scholar 

  66. Jensen K, Larsson B. Variations in physical capacity in a period including supplemental training of the national Danish soccer team for women. In: Reilly T, Clarys J, Stibbe A, editors. Science and Football: II. London: E & FN Spon, 1993: 114–7

    Google Scholar 

  67. Reilly T, Secher N. Physiology of sports: an overview. In: Reilly T, Secher N, Snell P, et al. editors. Physiology of sports. London: E & FN Spon, 1990: 465–86

    Google Scholar 

  68. Reilly T, Smith D. Effect of work intensity on performance in a psychomotor task during exercise. Ergonomics 1986; 29: 601–6

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  69. Bender VL, McGlynn GH. The effect of various levels of strenuous to exhaustive exercise on reaction time. Eur J Appl Physiol 1976; 35: 95–101

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  70. Cheshikhina VV. Relationship between running speed and cognitive processes in orienteering: two empirical studies. Sci J Orienteering 1993; 9: 49–59

    Google Scholar 

  71. Davey CP. Physical exertion and mental performance. Ergonomics 1973; 16: 595–9

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  72. Fach HH. Visual attention and concentration during stepwise increased treadmill velocity in orienteers and long-distance runners. Sci J Orienteering 1985; 1: 14–23

    Google Scholar 

  73. Gupta VP, Sharma TR, Jaspar SS. Physical activity and efficiency of mental work. Percept Mot Skills 1974; 38: 205–6

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  74. Mutch BJC, Banister EW. Ammonia metabolism in exercise and fatigue: a review. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1983; 15: 41–50

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  75. Thorstensson A, Larsson L, Tesch P. Muscle strength and fiber composition in athletes and sedentary man. Med Sci Sports 1977; 9: 26–30

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  76. Gleeson NP, Mercer TH. Reproducibility of isokinetic leg strength and endurance charcteristics of adult men and women. Eur J Appl Physiol 1992; 65: 221–8

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  77. Johansson C, Lorentzen R, Rasmuson S, et al. Peak torque and OBLA running capacity in male orienteers. Acta Physiol Scand 1988; 132:525–30

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Creagh, U., Reilly, T. Physiological and Biomechanical Aspects of Orienteering. Sports Med 24, 409–418 (1997). https://doi.org/10.2165/00007256-199724060-00005

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.2165/00007256-199724060-00005

Keywords

Navigation