Effect size statistics | Null test | Heterogeneity statistics | Publication bias | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
k | g | SE | s2 | 95% CI | Z | Q | τ2 | I2 | Fail-safe N | |
Random effects model† | 28 | −0.09 | 0.051 | 0.003 | −0.190 to 0.009 | −1.79* | 43.06 | 0.021 | 37.30 | 0 |
Methodological characteristics‡ | ||||||||||
Research design | 0.14‡ | |||||||||
Descriptive | 7 | −0.06 | 0.095 | 0.009 | −0.−670 to 0.503 | −1.41 | 0.90 | 0 | 0 | |
Experimental | 21 | −0.11 | 0.064 | 0.004 | −0.−192 to 0.066 | −1.99* | 41.57* | 0.055 | 51.89 | |
Outcomes | 3.68‡ | |||||||||
Cognitive | 10 | −0.19 | 0.089 | 0.008 | −0.−359, to 0.011 | −2.08* | 19.83* | 0.071 | 54.60 | |
Multiple | 16 | −0.03 | 0.061 | 0.004 | −0.−147 to 0.090 | −0.47 | 8.75 | 0 | 0 | |
Performance | 2 | −0.37 | 0.227 | 0.052 | −0.−831 to 0.077 | −1.62 | 8.46* | 0.645 | 88.18 | |
Exposure | 0.21‡ | |||||||||
Acute | 14 | −0.07 | 0.076 | 0.006 | −0.218 to 0.801 | −0.90 | 38.24* | 0.086 | 63.93 | |
Chronic | 13 | −0.12 | 0.078 | 0.006 | −0.272 to 0.035 | −1.51 | 4.40 | 0 | 0 | |
Not reported | 1 | −0.10 | 0.278 | 0.097 | −0.708 to 0.511 | −0.32 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |
Sample characteristics‡ | ||||||||||
Gender | 3.18‡ | |||||||||
Females and males | 10 | 0.01 | 0.084 | 0.007 | −0.157 to 0.171 | 0.09 | 5.25 | 0 | 0 | |
Females only | 4 | −0.07 | 0.103 | 0.011 | −0.−275 to 0.127 | −0.72 | 3.60 | 0.004 | 16.57 | |
Males only | 14 | −0.20 | 0.082 | 0.007 | −0.−362 to −0.039 | −2.44* | 28.16* | 0.086 | 57.36 | |
Age | 8.28‡ | |||||||||
Adult amateur | 4 | −0.20 | 0.174 | 0.030 | −0.542 to 0.140 | −1.16 | 0.38 | 0 | 0 | |
College/university | 9 | 0.05 | 0.090 | 0.008 | −0.131 to 0.221 | 0.50 | 3.68 | 0 | 0 | |
High school | 7 | −0.08 | 0.083 | 0.007 | −0.247 to 0.080 | −0.99 | 22.86 | 0.066 | 73.75 | |
Multiple ages | 5 | −0.14 | 0.119 | 0.014 | −0.371 to 0.094 | −1.17 | 2.11 | 0 | 0 | |
Professional | 2 | −0.57 | 0.206 | 0.043 | −0.975 to −0.165 | −2.76* | 2.98 | 0.135 | 66.43 | |
Youth | 1 | −0.10 | 0.278 | 0.077 | −0.641 to 0.450 | −0.34 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |
Study characteristics‡ | ||||||||||
Measures | 0.53‡ | |||||||||
Subjective and objective | 14 | −0.06 | 0.065 | 0.004 | −0.−191 to 0.065 | −0.97 | 23.36* | 0.020 | 44.36 | |
Objective | 14 | −0.14 | 0.083 | 0.007 | −0.−302 to 0.022 | −1.70 | 18.33 | 0.029 | 29.08 | |
Status | 0.31 | |||||||||
Published | 27 | −0.10 | 0.051 | 0.003 | −0.196 to 0.005 | −1.87 | 42.37* | 0.021 | 38.64 | |
Unpublished | 1 | 0.18 | 0.444 | 0.197 | −0.695 to 1.047 | 0.40 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
*p<0.05.
†Total Q-value used to determine heterogeneity.
‡Between Q-value used to determine significance (α<0.05).
g, effect size (Hedges g); I2, total variance explained by moderator; k, number of effect sizes; s2, variance; Z, test of null hypothesis; τ2, between-study variance in random effects model.