Table 2

Cadence-based controlled study designs focusing on intensity (ie, MVPA/3 METs) measured with indirect calorimetry

ReferenceSample characteristicsMeasurementProtocolAnalytical strategyFindings
Tudor-Locke18
2005
25 men, 25 women;
A convenience adult sample;
18–39 years (25.4±4.7 years for men, 23.6±3.4 years for women)
Steps: Yamax SW-200 pedometer, (Yamax, Tokyo);
Indirect calorimetry: Physiodyne Instrument, Quogue, New York
6 min exercise bouts at three treadmill speeds (4.8, 6.4 and 9.7 km/hour)Actual METs were calculated for each speed;
Linear regression was used to quantify the relationship between steps/min and METs;
Regression equations generated were used to establish steps/min cut-point corresponding to moderate intensity
  • For men 96, 125 and 153 steps/min corresponding to moderate (3 METs), hard (6 METs) and very hard (9 METs) intensity activity, respectively

  • For women 107, 136 and 162 steps/min, respectively

  • Roughly 100 steps/min for both for moderate-intensity activity

Marshall26
2009
39 men, 58 women;
Community Latino adult sample;
32.1±10.6 years
Steps: Yamax SW-200 pedometer (Yamax, Tokyo);
Indirect calorimetry: VacuMed
6 min incremental walking bouts at 3.9, 4.8, 5.7 and 6.6 km/hourThree analytic approaches: 1) multiple regression—step counts from each treadmill speed were used to develop a prediction equation for generating a cut-point associated with moderate intensity; 2) mixed modelling—random coefficients models was developed to take account of the data-dependence structure and 3) receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves—optimal cut-point was examined using sensitivity and specificity
  • For all participants 89, 106 and 107 steps/min corresponding to 3 METs when using multiple regression, mixed modelling and ROC curve, respectively

  • For men 92, 101 and 102 steps/min, respectively

  • For women, 91, 111 and 115 steps/min, respectively

  • Support 100 steps/min for moderate-intensity activity

Beets45
2010
9 men, 11 women;
Healthy adults;
20–40 years (26.4±4.6 years)
Steps: hand tally counter;
Indirect calorimetry: K4, Cosmed, Italy
6 min overground walking at 1.8, 2.7, 3.6, 4.5 and 5.4 km/hourActual METs were calculated for each speed;
Random effects models were used to predict steps/min from METs and participant anthropometric measures;
Regression equations generated were used to establish steps/min corresponding to 3 METs;
Model estimates were used to predict steps/min corresponding to heights ranging from 5 ft. to 6 ft. 6 in.
  • 100 steps/min corresponded to 3 METs

  • Estimated steps/min decreased by −1.15 steps/min as leg length increased by 1 cm

  • Ranges of steps/min corresponding to leg length for individuals 152.4–193.1 cm were from 111 to 85, respectively

Nielson1
2011
50 men, 50 women;
A convenience sample of physically active adults;
23.3±3.9 years (24.2±4.0 for men and 22.4±3.5 for women)
Steps: hand tally counter;
Indirect calorimetry: Trueman 2400 metabolic cart, Consentious Technologies, Sandy, Utah
10 min treadmill walking bouts at cadences of 80, 90, 100, 110 and 120 steps/minEnergy expenditure at each stage was calculated by multiplying the average steady-state oxygen consumption by the appropriate caloric equivalent obtained from the measured steady-state non-protein respiratory exchange ratio value;
Descriptive statistics were computed for the MET values
  • Walking speeds at cadences of 80, 90, 100, 110 and 120 steps/min were 2.6, 3.0, 4.0, 4.7 and 5.6 km/hour for both genders, respectively

  • MET values for each cadence were 2.6, 2.8, 3.2, 3.7 and 4.6 METs, respectively

  • Findings concur with 100 steps/min for moderate-intensity activity

Rowe46
2011
37 men, 38 women;
University employees and their families;
18–64 years (32.9±12.4 years)
Steps: hand tally counter;
Indirect calorimetry
Three treadmill and overground walking trials at slow, medium, and fast walking speedsMultiple regression analysis was used to develop a regression equation to predict overground VO2 from cadence and stride length indicators;
Mixed model regression was used to develop an equation determining the cadence cut-point
  • Cadence corresponding to 3 MET was 103 steps/min

  • The range of 3 MET cadence in different heights was from 90 to 113 steps/min for adults 198 to 152 cm, respectively

Abel19
2011
9 men, 10 women;
A convenience sample of physically active university students;
28.8±6.8 years (27.1±3.1 years for men and 30.3±8.9 years for women)
Steps: hand tally counter;
Indirect calorimetry: TrueMax 2400, Sandy, Utah
10 min treadmill walking trials at 3.2, 4.8 and 6.4 km/hour and running at 8.0, 9.7 and 11.3 km/hourLinear and non-linear regression analyses were both used to develop prediction equations to determine cadence cut-points at various intensities
  • For men, estimated steps/min were 94 and 125 for moderate (3 METs) and vigorous (6 METs) intensity, respectively

  • For women, 99 and 135 steps/min were equivalent to moderate and vigorous intensity, respectively

  • Should walk at a pace of 100 steps/min to achieve moderate intensity

Wang20
2013
117 men, 109 women;
Recreationally active community Chinese adults sample;
21.7±0.2 years
Steps: hand tally counter;
Indirect calorimetry: Cortex MetaMax3B
Four 6 min bouts overground walking at 3.8, 4.8, 5.6 and 6.4 km/hour (50 m rectangular track)ROC curves were used to determine optimal cadence cut-points
  • Cadences corresponding to 3 and 6 METs were 105 and 130 steps/min, respectively

Rowe47
2013
25 currently inactive adults;
16–64 years (34±13 years)
Steps: hand tally counter;
Indirect calorimetry: Cosmed, Italy and AEI Technologies, USA
A moderate intensity (4.3 km/hour) treadmill walking trial;
Overground walking trial: a 10 min self-paced ‘brisk’ walk and moderate-paced (with metronome prompt) walk
Single-sample t-test, repeated measures t-test, Cohen’s d, Bland-Altman plots and one-way repeated measures analyses of variance were used to determine study outcomes
  • Cadence corresponding to 3.88±0.53 METs was 114±8 steps/min

  • Cadences during self-paced brisk walking and metronome-paced walking were 124±8 and 114±8 steps/min, respectively

Rowe16
2014
17 unilateral transtibial amputees (TTAs);
52.2±12.9 years
Steps: hand tally counter;
Indirect calorimetry: Servomex, Woburn, Massachusetts
Two 5 min walking trials around a speed corresponding to approximately 50% maximal age-predicted HRLinear regression was used to develop prediction equations to determine intensity from cadence
  • 86 steps/min corresponded to 3 MET intensity

Peacock17
2014
29 women;
60–87 years (71.3±12.4 years)
Steps: hand tally counter;
Indirect calorimetry: Zoetermeer, The Netherlands
4 min treadmill walking at self-selected slow, medium and fast speeds (order was counterbalanced)A regression model (model 2 in the paper) was used to predict moderate-intensity cadence
  • Predicted cadence corresponding to 3 METs was approximately 99 steps/min, which was moderated by age and height (lower cadences with older ages and increased height)

Serrano14
2017
121 apparently healthy older adults, 49 men;
68.6±7.8 years;
60 for algorithm development (68.1±8.6 years) and 61 for algorithm validation (69.1±7.1 years)
Steps: step sensor+Garmin FR60 (Foot Pod, Garmin Rome, Italy);
Indirect calorimetry: a portable metabolic cart
Visit 1—walking test on a treadmill to achieve maximal capacity (VO2peak) within 10–12 min;
Visit 2—200 m flat surface walking test until achieving 40% of VO2reserve and 2 min walking at the targeted intensity
Linear regression was used to predict walking cadence at 40% VO2reserve from height, body weight, body mass index and cadence at self-selected walking speed
  • Mean walking cadence was 115±10 steps/min corresponding to relatively defined moderate intensity (40% of VO2reserve) based on a prior maximum fitness test

  • MET values presented for the Nielson et al (2011) study were calculated by dividing 150 from the recorded values of MET-minute (150 minutes) in the original article.45 Walking speeds were converted into kilometers perhour if other metrics were used in the original manuscript.

  • HRR, heart rate reserve; MET, metabolic equivalent; MVPA, moderate-to-vigorous intensity physical activity; NR, not reported.