Final consensus statements and levels of agreement
| Domain 1: golf’s association with health and mechanisms | % Agreement |
| a. Relationship of golf with health outcomes | |
| The best available evidence suggests playing golf regularly is associated with increased longevity. | 100 |
| Playing golf regularly can improve known risk factors for cardiovascular disease (eg, blood lipids and body composition). | 100 |
| As a physical activity, golf is likely to reduce the risk of chronic conditions including cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes, colon and breast cancer, depression and dementia. | 96 |
| Playing golf is associated with mental well-being benefits which can include improved self-esteem, self-worth, self-efficacy and social connections. | 100 |
| Playing/involvement with golf can positively influence health for individuals with disability. | 100 |
| Playing golf can contribute to healthy and active ageing, providing physical and mental health, cognitive, social, functional and other benefits. | 100 |
| The annual incidence of injury playing golf is moderate compared with other sports, while the risk of injury per hour played is low compared with other sports. | 96 |
| Serious injury is rare, although accidental head injury sustained from being struck by a ball or club can have serious consequences. | 96 |
| While moderate sun exposure can offer benefits, golfers can be exposed to increased risk of skin cancer associated with excess sun exposure if appropriate care and consideration is not taken. | 100 |
| The magnitude of health benefits/health problems will depend on many factors including age, gender, genetic factors and the existing fitness/wellness of the participant, the topography of the course and frequency of play. | 100 |
| While a significant body of evidence exists relating to golf and health, further high-quality research is needed. | 100 |
| High-quality research is needed to assess relationships between golf and mental health/well-being, the contribution of golf to muscle strength and balance, benefits to particular populations, and to explore cause and effect nature of associations between golf and health. | 100 |
| b. Mechanisms to achieve health | |
| Golf can provide health-enhancing physical activity for persons of all ages. | 100 |
| Playing golf can provide moderate-intensity aerobic physical activity. | 100 |
| The relative intensity of physical activity while playing golf can vary with topography and length of the course, environmental conditions, and the age, gender and baseline fitness of the participant. | 100 |
| Health benefits are likely greater for those walking the course as opposed to riding a golf cart (for those who are able). | 100 |
| Benefits accrued by those playing golf riding a golf cart may include health-enhancing physical activity, social connections and green exercise while the intensity of physical activity is lower compared with those playing and walking the course. | 92 |
| Playing golf is likely to provide strength and balance benefits for older adults. | 100 |
| Spectating in an active fashion (eg, walking the course) at golf courses/tournaments offers an opportunity for health-enhancing physical activity. | 100 |
| Playing golf outside can provide a form of green exercise and nature connection which can be enhanced in naturalistic courses. | 100 |
| Golf offers opportunities for intergenerational connection, for social interaction and to support communities with events of interest. | 100 |
| Taking part in physical activities additional to golf is likely to offer golfers further health benefits. | 100 |
| c. Dose and effect | |
| Adults should do at least 150 min of moderate-intensity aerobic physical activity (which could include golf) throughout the week or do at least 75 min of vigorous-intensity aerobic physical activity throughout the week, or an equivalent combination of moderate and vigorous-intensity activity to meet the WHO recommendations. | 100 |
| Participation in golf/other physical activities over and above the minimum physical activity guidelines is likely to offer additional benefits compared with those just reaching the minimum recommendations. | 96 |
| Being physically active/playing golf regularly throughout life provides greater benefits than being active/playing golf intermittently. | 100 |