Table 1

Modified Cochrane Back and Neck Pain Group criteria for overall level of evidence based on cross-sectional studies

OutcomeNo. of studiesNo. of participantsLevel of evidence
Kinesiophobia (association with)
Quality of life81426Moderate (negative association)
Disability469351Strong (positive association)
Pain intensity386806Strong (positive association)
Pain severity4767Moderate (positive association)
  • Strong evidence: consistent findings in two or more low risk of bias studies (score from 14 to 21 on NOS); moderate evidence: consistent findings in one low risk of bias study or two or more moderate risk of bias studies (score from 8 to 13 on NOS); limited evidence: consistent findings in one or more high risk of bias studies (score from 0 to 7 on NOS) or one moderate risk of bias study; lacking evidence: no published studies found; conflicting evidence: inconsistent or contradictory findings within a quality level.