Characteristics of included studies (n=22)
| Study | Quality index score | Study design | Sample size | Sex (M/F) | Age (M±SD) | Competitive level | Comparison groups | LBP definition | Context: laboratory or rowing boat | Methods: equipment, protocols and so on | Primary outcome measures |
| An et al 201529 | 16 | Case-control | 25 | 9 M/16 F | 24.9±8.0 | Regional and university rowers | History of LBP group (n=6) None-LBP group (n=19) | Nociceptive sensation at the lumbar or thoracic spine during rowing that resulted in cessation of training for at least 7 days within 12 months before data collection | Laboratory | Strain gauge transducers in foot plate Performed 30 strokes of maximum exertion ergometer rowing at 18 s/min | Peak force (N) Mean loading rate Peak loading rate Asymmetry index (%) |
| Buckeridge et al 201213 | 17 | Cross-sectional | 22 | 22 M/0 F | 22.2±3.6 | Novice, club and elite rowers (participated in a World Championship) | Novice group (n=6) Club group (n=8) Elite group (n=8) | N/A | Laboratory | Load cell on the rowing ergometer handle, linear encoder on flywheel and four load cells in the seat Electromagnetic tracking system (Flock of Birds) Performed rowing ergometer intervals at a range of intensities—4 min at 18 s/min, 4 min at 20 s/min, 500 m at 2 km personal best pace and 30 strokes at maximal stroke rate and power | ROM (°) Peak force (N) Mean power (W) Seat drift (mm) Stroke length (mm) Asymmetry index (%) |
| Fletcher et al 201538 | 16 | Cross-sectional | 10 | 0 M/10 F | 21.0±3.9 | Novice rowers | N/A | N/A | Laboratory | Load cell on the rowing ergometer handle, under the seat and in the foot plates Video analysis and EMG Performed a 1 km ergometer test using two different rowing techniques | ROM (°) Impulse (N.s) Stroke rate (stroke/min) Stroke length (m) |
| Gill et al 201237 | 19 | Cross-sectional | 30 | 17 M/13 F | 19.8±1.2 | University sweep rowers | History of LBP group (n=10) None-LBP group (n=20) | ODI FABQ | Laboratory | US imaging Performed bilateral US measures of TA, IO and EO | Absolute thickness measures (mm) Relative thickness measures (%) Total abdominals measures (mm) |
| Holt et al 200316 | 17 | Cross-sectional | 13 | 13 M/0 F | 22.4±1.5 | Elite sweep rowers | History of LBP group (n=6) None-LBP group (n=7) | N/A | Laboratory | Load cell on the rowing ergometer handle Electromagnetic tracking system (Flock of Birds) Performed 1-hour ergometer rowing session at 18–20 s/min | ROM (°) Handle force output (N) |
| Klein et al 199140 | 17 | Case-control | 25 | 25 M/0 F | 18.3±0.8 | University sweep rowers | History of LBP group (n=17) None-LBP group (n=8) | Report of a singular or recurring incidence of lumbar LBP during the past year that interfered with activities of daily living including rowing or training activities | Laboratory | Inclinometers, goniometers and EMG Performed ROM testing of lumbar spine (flexion, extension, side flexion) in standing and thoracic spine (rotation) in sitting Performed EMG measures of longissimus (L1 and L2), MF (L5) and fatigue trial for 30 s at 80% MVC plus short duration contractions at 80% MVC for 5×10 s | ROM (°) MVC |
| MacManus et al 201328 | 16 | Case-control | 11 | 11 M/0 F | 29.2±5.6 | Senior/Elite rowers | History of LBP group (n=6) None-LBP group (n=5) | History of LBP in past year which required them to miss rowing for a period of at least 1 week | Laboratory | Spinal position monitoring device (BodyGuard system)—incorporates a strain gauge placed at L2 and S2 Performed an incremental rowing ergometer test to exhaustion | LP kinematics (%ROM) |
| Martinez-Valdes et al 201912 | 15 | Case-control | 18 | 13 M/5 F | 29.3±15.6 | Club and international rowers | History of LBP group (n=8) None-LBP group (n=10) | ODI | Laboratory | HDEMG and electrogoniometer Performed an incremental rowing ergometer test to exhaustion and measured HDEMG signals (of ES, RA and EO) and knee motion in sagittal plane | Amplitude (% RMS) Entropy (AU) Y-axis barycentre (mm) |
| McGregor et al 2002a35 | 15 | Case-control | 20 | 20 M/0 F | 22.6±4.3 | Elite sweep rowers | LBP group (n=4) History of LBP group (n=9) None-LBP group (n=7) | Pain experienced in the lumbar spine, with or without radiation to the buttocks | Laboratory | MRI scanner and MRI compatible wooden rowing jig Performed sagittal plane analysis of four rowing stroke phases in a static position | ROM (°) |
| McGregor et al 2002b41 | 15 | Case-control | 22 | 22 M/0 F | 22.6±4.3 | Elite sweep rowers | LBP group (n=5) History of LBP group (n=13) None-LBP group (n=4) | LBP which had required nonsurgical intervention and had resulted in time off training | Laboratory | MRI scanner and MRI compatible wooden rowing jig Performed sagittal plane analysis of the catch phase of the rowing stroke in a static position Performed muscle cross-sectional muscle area analysis of MF, ES at L4-L5 and L5-S1, and iliopsoas at L4-L5 | Cross-sectional area (mm2) |
| McGregor et al 2004a42 | 15 | Case-control | 74 | 39 M/35 F | 25.4±4.7 | Elite sweep rowers and scullers (all members of Great Britain rowing team). Active non-rowers | Rowers (n=39) Non-rowers (n=35) | N/A | Laboratory | Isokinetic testing system (Cybex Norm) Performed five repetitions of four flexion-extension strength tests at different speeds—30, 60, 90 and 120°/s Performed an isometric test at 10° flexion for 30 s and repeated at 10° extension | Peak torque (N/m) |
| McGregor et al 2004b27 | 17 | Cross-sectional | 10 | 10 M/0 F | 22.1±2.8 | University sweep rowers | History of LBP group (n=8) None-LBP group (n=2) | N/A | Laboratory | Load cell on the rowing ergometer handle Electromagnetic tracking system (Flock of Birds) Performed three rowing ergometer intervals of 4 min duration at stroke rates of 17–20, 24–28 and 28–36 s/min, respectively, with 5 min rest in between intervals | LP kinematics (°) Peak force (N) Power (W) Work done (Nm) Stroke length (cm) |
| McGregor et al 200526 | 17 | Cross-sectional | 12 | 0 M/12 F | 26.8±4.3 | Elite rowers (all members of Great Britain rowing team) | N/A | N/A | Laboratory | Load cell and motion sensor on the rowing ergometer handle Electromagnetic tracking system (Flock of Birds) Performed an incremental ergometer test from 18 to 28 s/min | LP kinematics (°) Handle force output (N) Stroke length (cm) Power (W) Work done (J) |
| McGregor et al 200725 | 18 | Cross-sectional | 7 | 0 M/7 F | 25.6±4.3 | Elite rowers (all members of Great Britain rowing team) | N/A | N/A | Laboratory | Load cell and motion sensor on the rowing ergometer handle Electromagnetic tracking system (Flock of Birds) Performed an incremental ergometer test from 18 to 26 s/min | LP kinematics (°) Handle force output (N) Stroke length (cm) Work done (J) |
| Nowicky et al 200536 | 18 | Cross-sectional | 6 | 6 M/0 F | 19.6±0.8 | University sweep rowers | N/A | N/A | Laboratory | EMG and video analysis Performed three 2–3 min rowing intervals at 20–24 s/min on Concept 2 and Rowperfect rowing ergometers | ROM (°) EMG activity (mV·s): RF, BF, ES and RA Work rate (speed, stroke rate and heart rate) Rowing cycle/drive phase duration (s) |
| Parkin et al 200114 | 17 | Case-control | 39 | 39 M/0 F | National level sweep rowers Non-rowers | Rowers (n=19) Non-rowers (n=20) | N/A | Laboratory | Isokinetic dynamometer (Kin-Com system) and EMG Performed a concentric knee flexion/extension test at 1.75 rad/s, 3.5 rad/s and an eccentric knee extension test at 1.75 rad/s Performed an isometric back flexion/extension test with EMG recordings of the ES muscle groups | Isokinetic and isometric knee extension/flexion strength (N) Hamstrings: quadriceps ratio (%) Isometric back flexion/extension strength (N) EMG activity (mV): ES | |
| Pollock et al 200939 | 18 | Cross-sectional | 9 | 0 M/9 F | 25.8±2.6 | Elite rowers (all members of Canadian rowing team) | History of LBP group (n=3) None-LBP group (n=6) | N/A | Laboratory | Motion capture system (Motion Analysis Corp) and EMG Performed 2 km ergometer test | 3D-kinematics EMG activity (mV): TRA/IO, RA, EO, ES, LD, BF and GM |
| Roy et al 199043 | 16 | Case-control | 23 | 23 M/0 F | 20.3±1.3 | University sweep rowers | History of LBP group (n=6) None-LBP group (n=17) | One or more episodes of LBP interfering with activities of daily living including rowing or training activities | Laboratory | Postural restraint device/force acquisition system (Back Analysis System) and EMG Performed an isometric back extension test: 5 s MVC, 30 s at 80% MVC, 1 min recovery and 5 s at 80% MVC | EMG activity (Hz): LT, IL and MF |
| Steer et al 200622 | 17 | Cross-sectional | 12 | 12 M/0 F | 21.7±1.8 | University sweep rowers and scullers | N/A | N/A | Laboratory | Load cell and motion sensor on the rowing ergometer handle Electromagnetic tracking system (Flock of Birds) Performed three 300 m ergometer tests at 18–20 and 28–30 s/min on a Concept 2 ergometer and WaterRower ergometer | LP kinematics (°) Stroke length (cm) Peak force (N) Power (W) |
| Strahan et al 201121 | 15 | Cross-sectional | 10 | 5 M/5 F | 19.1±2.1 | Club sweep rowers and scullers (all members of Institute of Sport team) | N/A | N/A | Laboratory | Instrumented rowing ergometer with potentiometers 3-Space Fastrak motion sensors on T6, T12, L3 and S2 Performed spinopelvic ROM measurements, three 4–5 min ergometer tests at 18, 22 and 26 s/min for both sweep rowing and sculling | Spinopelvic ROM (°) Spinopelvic kinematics (%ROM) |
| Wilson et al 201219 | 17 | Cross-sectional | 12 | 12 M/0 F | 23.17±5.15 | Elite rowers | N/A | N/A | Laboratory | Inclinometer (Spectron Systems Technology) placed at L3 for frontal plane analysis Performed an incremental rowing ergometer test to exhaustion | Frontal plane angular displacement (°) Blood lactate concentration (mmol/L) |
| Wilson et al 201315 | 17 | Cross-sectional | 19 | 19 M/0 F | 24.2±3.7 | Elite scullers | N/A | N/A | Laboratory and rowing boat | Electrogoniometer placed on L2-L4 portion of lumbar spine for sagittal plane analysis Performed an incremental test to exhaustion on a Concept 2 rowing ergometer and in a single scull | Sagittal plane kinematics (°) |
AU, arbitrary units; BF, biceps femoris; EMG, electromyography; EO, external oblique; ES, erector spinae; FABQ, Fear Avoidance Behaviour Questionnaire; GM, gluteus maximus; HDEMG, high-density electromyography; IL, iliocostalis lumborum; IO, internal oblique; LD, latissimus dorsi; LP, lumbo-pelvic; LT, longissimus thoracis; MF, multifidus; MVC, maximal voluntary contraction; N/A, not applicable; N/R, not reported; ODI, Oswestry Disability Index; RA, rectus abdominis; RF, rectus femoris; RMS, root mean square; ROM, range of motion; s/min, strokes per minute; TRA, transversus abdominis; UL, ultrasound.