Table 2

Summary of findings from studies of former amateur athletes

StudyCountryNStudy groupAge (years)ExposureTopic/OutcomeSignificant
findings/risk
Bohr et al111USA10 951 (54.3% women)High school sports29.0 (1.7)Sports participationFootball associated with reduced odds of lifetime history of depression, and it was not associated with worse cognitive functioning, current depression or suicidality in the past year.Yes/Lesser for lifetime history of depression
Deshpande et al110USA2197; 521 (23.7%) footballHigh school sportsFootball M=28.8
Controls M=29.1		Sports participationSelf-reported current depression; prior diagnosis of depression, anxiety or PTSD; suicidality.No
Iverson et al109USAWave IV=2318
Wave III=1856		High school footballWave IV M=29.1, SD=1.8
Wave III M=21.9, SD=1.8		Football participationWave IV: lifetime diagnosis of depression, suicide ideation, current depression.
Wave III: suicide ideation.		No
Iverson and Terry108USA1762
Football=369
No football=952		High school footballM=38.03, SD=1.95Football participationLifetime diagnosis of depression, anxiety disorder or panic disorder; mental health treatment past year; suicidal ideation past year; current depression.No
Deshpande et al134USA2 692; 834 (31.0%) played footballHigh school footballM=64.4, SD=0.8Football
participation		Former football players did not report greater symptoms of depression or perform worse on cognitive testing.No
Savica et al113USA512
Football=438
Controls=140		High school footballFootball: 68.4 (IQR=31.5–75.6); Controls: 59.1 (IQR=26.7–73.4)Football
participation		Neurological and neurodegenerative diseases.No
Janssen et al112USA486
Football=296
Other sports=190		High school football62–78Football versus sports participationNeurological and neurodegenerative diseases.No
Valenti et al131Italy300 people with ALS (36% women) and 300 controlsALSALS sample: males 59 (SD=8); females 60 (SD=9)Sports participation, particularly soccerNo association between playing sports, and soccer in particular, and having ALS.No
Porter et al125USA20 boxers
20 controls		Amateur boxers16–25 at startBoxing participationCognitive functioning over 9 years; neuropsychological test scores did not appear to change.No
Weiss et al121Sweden660,
58.2% women		Amateur collision or contact sportsM=62.8, SD=7.9Sports participation; n=77 men and n=1 womanCognitive impairment in older adulthood.No

  • None of these studies examined concussions as the exposure variable of interest. All examined exposure to amateur (eg, high school) sports, but none of the studies quantified that exposure (eg, years of participation, position played or playing time).

  • ALS, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis; M, mean; n, sample size.