Risk of bias for included studies
| Risk of bias items | Total score | ||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Author | Study type | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | |
| Armstrong | RCT | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 7 |
| Bjersing | RCT | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 7 |
| Brandon | RCT | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 8 |
| Brosseau | RCT | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 6 |
| Cox | RCT | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 9 |
| Duncan | RCT | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 7 |
| Fisher | RCT | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 6 |
| Gusi | RCT | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 8 |
| Hamdorf | RCT | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 7 |
| Hinkleman | RCT | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 6 |
| Isaacs | RCT | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 9 |
| Kamijo | RCT | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 7 |
| Kayo | RCT | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 7 |
| Legrand | RCT | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 6 |
| Mannerkorpi | RCT | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 8 |
| Moore-Harrison | RCT | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 6 |
| Morrison | RCT | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 6 |
| Negri | RCT | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 6 |
| Palmer | RCT | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 6 |
| Reuter | RCT | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 9 |
| Rooks | RCT | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 8 |
| van Uffelen | RCT | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 7 |
| Callahan | Pre–post | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 6 |
| Dallocchio | Pre–post | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 6 |
| Fantin | Pre–post | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 7 |
| Figard-Fabre | Pre–post | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 7 |
| Gelecek | Pre–post | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 6 |
| Holmberg | Pre–post | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 5 |
| Moss | Pre–post | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 5 |
| O'Halloran | Pre–post | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 5 |
| O'Hara | Pre–post | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 4 |
| Cavanaugh | CT | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 7 |
| Fritz | CT | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 5 |
| Park | CT | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 6 |
| Roberts | CT | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 6 |
| Silverthorn | CT | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 6 |
| Song | CT | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 8 |
| Takahashi | CT | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 6 |
| Thomas | CT | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 4 |
| Cyarto | Quasi-experimental | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 7 |
| McDevitt | Quasi-experimental | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 6 |
| Ng | Cohort study | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 4 |
(1) Randomisation, (2) exposure, (3) representativeness, (4) comparability, (5) attrition, (6) follow-up tools, (7) follow-up time scale, (8) precision of the results, (9) statistical power.
Grey scale indicates studies included in meta-analysis.
CT, controlled trial; RCT, randomised controlled trial.