On knowing how to do things: a theory of motor imagery

doi:10.1016/0926-6410(95)00030-5

Cognitive Brain Research

Volume 3, Issue 2, March 1996, Pages 65-69

https://doi.org/10.1016/0926-6410(95)00030-5 Get rights and content

Abstract

The distinction between ‘knowing how’ and ‘knowing that’ is fundamental to current theories of cognition. Two distinct encodings or representations are implied, one conscious and verbalisable and the other normally unconscious yet demonstrable in behaviour. The paper discusses the nature of these two kinds of representation and relations between them. It is shown that imagery forms an essential mediating link between the two encodings and a theoretical model — the Action-Language-Imagination or ALI model — is presented. An important feature of the model is the role attributed to the motor system in generating imagery and principal features of motor imagery are reviewed in the context of the ALI model and with reference to recent experimental findings. Problems in mapping conscious representations of action onto physical brain mechanisms are briefly discussed. It is proposed that the physical basis of imaginal representations of actions is best understood in terms of the mechanisms of motor control. A two stage theory of motor imagery is proposed in which the first stage, the generation of a prototypical action is virtually identical to that involved in overt actions whilst the second stage depends on the retrieval of sensory impressions from memory.

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One of the central ideas in the current review is that explicit knowledge of motor processes is complex, possibly involving different sorts of access to multiple underlying processes. Indeed, several authors explored in detail the complex interactions between our explicit knowledge and our motor skills (Annett, 1985; Annett, 1995; Annett, 1996; Stanley and Krakauer, 2013; Krakauer, 2019). To advance a specific complexity, we distinguish an ability to describe the strategy I am currently applying from an ability to deliberately choose to implement it or stop using it (Hadjiosif and Krakauer, 2020; Maresch et al., 2020).
Adaptation tasks are a key tool in characterizing the contribution of explicit and implicit processes to sensorimotor learning. However, different assumptions and ideas underlie methods used to measure these processes, leading to inconsistencies between studies. For instance, it is still unclear explicit and implicit combine additively. Cognitive studies of explicit and implicit processes show how non-additivity and bias in measurement can distort results. We argue that to understand explicit and implicit processes in visuomotor adaptation, we need a stronger characterization of the phenomenology and a richer set of models to test it on.
The effects of visual impairment on motor imagery in children and adolescents
2021, Research in Developmental Disabilities
While the development of motor imagery (MI) has been extensively studied in sighted children, it is not clear how children with different severities of visual impairment (VI) represent motor actions by using the motor representations constructed through the remaining intact senses, especially touch.
Mental chronometry and generation/manipulation of MI were examined in children with and without VI.
Participants included 64 youth with and without VI (33 without visual impairments, 14 moderate-to-severe, and 17 blind). Mental chronometry was assessed with the imagined Timed-Up-and-Go-Test (iTUG), and generation/manipulation of MI with the Controllability-of-Motor-Imagery-Test (CMI). In addition, the effect of working memory performance (Letter-Number-Sequencing) and physical activity upon MI were evaluated.
Mental duration for the iTUG was significantly shorter than the active durations. Results also provided evidence of better haptic representation than motor representation in all participants; however, only for the CMI-regeneration condition controls outperformed children with visual impairments and blindness (CVIB). Exercise and working memory performance showed a significant contribution only on a few MI tests.
Our results suggest a possible relationship between motor performance, body representation deficits and visual impairment which needs to be addressed in the evaluation and treatment of CVIB. The design of new rehabilitation interventions that focus on strengthening adequate body perception and representation should be proposed and tested to promote motor development in CVIB.
The performance impact of data augmentation in CSP-based motor-imagery systems for BCI applications
2020, Biomedical Signal Processing and Control
This work investigates the performance impact of time-delay data-augmentation in motor-imagery classifiers for brain-computer-interface (BCI) applications.
The considered strategy is an extension of the Common Spectral Spatial Patterns (CSSP) method, which consists of accommodating available additional information about intra- and inter-electrode correlation into the information matrix employed by the conventional Common Spatial Patterns (CSP) method.
Simulation with electroencephalographic signals obtained from two public motor-imagery datasets, in a context of differentiation between binary (left and right-hand) movements, result in an overall classification improvement of 5%, and up to 31.7% for a single individual, when compared to the use of the conventional correlation matrix in CSP-based methods. These results are supported through statistical inference and the analysis of the Receiving Operating Characteristic curve.
The results obtained indicate that intra and inter-electrode correlation have relevant information, which have been underestimated by the literature in motor-imagery based BCI applications.
The analyzed time-delay data-augmentation method improves the motor-imagery BCI classification accuracy with a foreseeable increase in the computation complexity.
Is imagery better than reality? Performance in imagined dart throwing
2019, Human Movement Science
Citation Excerpt :
However, one may also more drastically argue, in accordance with the propositional view, that MI makes no use of the motor system, is based on tacit knowledge, and only an epiphenomenon of other, abstract mental processes (Pylyshyn, 2002). In this view, MI is performed by drawing on abstract knowledge about the movement and its previous consequences, but the subjective experience of mentally performing it has no causal relation to the mentally unfolding action (Annett, 1996). For instance, if one knows that one’s own skills are limited, one may intentionally incorporate errors into MI rather than detecting errors based on a simulation.
We investigated whether deviations from optimal performance are predicted in motor imagery. In Experiment 1, novices and experts imagined and executed dart throws. In imagination, they reported the final position of the dart. Experts performed better than novices in execution and imagination. Distance to the target and bias were smaller in imagination than in execution. In Experiment 2, we dissociated the roles of feedback from proximal and distal action elements for predictions. Three groups of novices estimated the dart’s final position in imagination, in execution without visual feedback, or in execution with delayed visual feedback. Estimates did not differ significantly between groups, indicating that (the lack of) feedback did not influence predictions. Deviations from optimal performance were lower in estimated than in actual performance. In conclusion, although predictive mechanisms may be similar in imagination and execution, the full extent of deviation from optimal performance is not predicted.
Imagine squeezing a cactus: Cortical activation during affective motor imagery measured by functional near-infrared spectroscopy
2018, Brain and Cognition
Citation Excerpt :
Especially area S2 may constitute parts of a circuit that predicts the outcome of our interactions with nearby objects to facilitate action planning. Annett (1996) proposed that during MI, not only motor execution but also prospective sensory feedback generated by overt actions were simulated. In addition, previous studies suggest that the effect of MI practice would be increased by feeling the sensations in association with the actual execution (Guillot, Lebon, & Collet, 2010; Holmes & Collins, 2001).
The activation of different brain areas during kinaesthetic and visual motor imagery has been extensively studied, whereas little is known about affective motor imagery, i.e. the imagery of pleasant/unpleasant movements. In the present neuroimaging study we investigated cortical activation of kinaesthetic motor imagery (KMI) based on emotional stimulus content by means of functional near infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS). Twenty healthy adult participants were instructed to imagine affective, and neutral motor tasks while multichannel fNIRS was recorded simultaneously. In the affective MI condition they had to imagine e.g. squeezing a cactus with their right hand several times, eliciting an unpleasant emotion. In the neutral condition their task was to imagine squeezing a ball. Significant differences in oxy-hemoglobin [oxy-Hb] concentration changes during KMI including affective objects in different brain regions were found. Specifically activation in left parietal and frontal regions was increased during the imagery of squeezing a cactus which induced a painful feeling. Both areas are also involved in the perception of pain and commonly labelled as parts of the “pain matrix”. Our study provides novel insights in cortical activation patterns during affective motor imagery and its psychological and cognitive mechanisms underlying pain experience.
Regional variability in late Lower Paleolithic Amudian blade technology: Analyzing new data from Qesem, Tabun and Yabrud I
2016, Quaternary International
Citation Excerpt :
Nevertheless, the fact that the results of the separately conducted attribute analysis of the three laminar types, CTEs and cores from Yabrud I-15 (Shimelmitz, 2009:227–300) showed similar patterns (e.g. the frequent use of removals from core bases) demonstrates the importance of the assemblage in displaying specific technological choices despite its limitations. Altogether, our results indicate that most of the technological procedures and choices made throughout the different steps of the reduction sequence appear at all three sites, indicating that the knappers shared the same ‘know-how’ (e.g. Parker and Milbrath, 1993; Annet, 1996) regarding laminar production and similar concepts of the product properties. There were however differences between the three sites in the frequencies of using specific technological procedures and choices along the reduction sequence.
The Acheulo–Yabrudian Cultural Complex (AYCC) of the late Lower Paleolithic Levant consists of three major industries, one of which is the blade-dominated Amudian. This paper provides an in-depth comparison of the Amudian blade industry from three major AYCC sites in the Levant – Qesem Cave, Tabun Cave and Yabrud Rockshelter I. The results demonstrate high inter-site similarity in Amudian blade technology and in product (blades) characteristics – i.e., a regional, clearly defined Amudian blade production technology. Nevertheless, differences in particular technological choices along the reduction sequences of blade production between the sites represent minute sub-regional technological variability within the Amudian. The evidence presented in this paper, together with many other innovative behavioral patterns seen in the AYCC, especially as reflected at Qesem Cave, may mark the end of a Lower Paleolithic Acheulian way of life that lasted over a million years in the Levant, and the beginning of a new era.

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Research reportOn knowing how to do things: a theory of motor imagery

Abstract

Cogn. Psychol.

Neuropsychologia

Cognitive Psychology and its Implications

Action, language and imagination

On knowing how to do things

Motor imagery in Parkinson's disease

The Co-ordination and Regulation of Movements

Research report
On knowing how to do things: a theory of motor imagery