Elsevier

Psychiatry Research

Volume 78, Issue 3, 8 May 1998, Pages 207-214
Psychiatry Research

Reliability of the 35% carbon dioxide panic provocation challenge

https://doi.org/10.1016/S0165-1781(98)00009-2Get rights and content

Abstract

The objective of this study was to determine the test–retest reliability of the 35% carbon dioxide (CO2) panic provocation challenge. Thirty patients with panic disorder were included in this study. Twenty-four patients were challenged twice, with 1 week between the two challenges. Six patients dropped out after the first test. The 35% CO2 challenge appeared to have a good test–retest reliability; both on induced subjective anxiety, measured on a Visual Analogue Scale for Anxiety (VAS-A), and induced panic symptoms, measured with a Panic Symptom List. Assessing the state of anxiety immediately after the challenge gave the most reliable results. Calculating increase in anxiety from the pre- and post-scores on the VAS-A rendered less reliable scores. This study completes a series of studies in which the criteria for an ideal model of panic are tested for the 35% CO2 challenge. Apart from an absolute specificity for panic disorder, the challenge meets these criteria. © 1998 Elsevier Science Ireland Ltd.

Introduction

Several authors have formulated criteria for an ideal model of panic (Guttmacher et al., 1983, Gorman et al., 1987, Uhde and Tancer, 1990). The 35% CO2 challenge meets most of these criteria. Panic attacks provoked by the challenge are similar to naturally occurring panic attacks (Griez et al., 1987). Both peripheral and central manifestations of anxiety are present (Perna et al., 1994a, Verburg et al., 1995). The main difference between naturally occurring panic attacks and those induced by the challenge is that the effects of the challenge are short-lived and easily reversible (Griez and Van den Hout, 1983).

The challenge has the potential of a trait marker: healthy first-degree relatives of panic disorder patients are vulnerable to the challenge (Perna et al., 1995d). The challenge also has the potential of a state marker: drugs that are effective in panic disorder also block the response to the challenge (Pols et al., 1991, Pols et al., 1996a, Perna et al., 1994b). The effect of drugs on the challenge outcome seems to preceed the clinical effect, and is already apparent after one week (Bertani et al., 1997). A clinical measure that is not effective, taking alprazolam on an if-needed basis, does not decrease CO2 induced anxiety (Pols et al., 1996b). This last finding, however, is disputed (Sanderson et al., 1994).

The procedure is safe. CO2 is a non-toxic agent and, in the two main centers where the challenge is used (Milan and Maastricht), thousands of tests have been performed without major adverse effects.

The specificity of the challenge for panic disorder is thoroughly investigated. The test appeared to be almost, but not absolutely, specific for panic disorder. In certain groups of patients, mainly those with specific situational phobia (Verburg et al., 1994a), some respond similar to panic disorder patients. On the other hand, a recent analysis showed that extremely high anxiety responses to the challenge could be very specific for panic disorder (Verburg et al., submitted). Also, the challenge differentiates well between patients with panic disorder and patients with obsessive–compulsive disorder (Griez et al., 1990a, Perna et al., 1995b), generalized anxiety disorder (Verburg et al., 1995), major depression (Perna et al., 1995a) and animal phobia (Verburg et al., 1994a). The finding that vulnerability to this challenge is not absolutely specific for panic disorder is consistent with findings in lactate studies (Cowley and Arana, 1990).

The only criterion for an ideal model of panic that has not been investigated is reliability.

We already have some indications that the test outcome is reliable. The test results do not differ in different centers (Verburg et al., submitted). In a study that investigated the effects of Toloxatone on the response to 35% CO2, compared with placebo, Perna et al. (1994b)did not find attenuation of the CO2 response in the placebo group. One study may question the reliability of the challenge: the outcome of the test varies with the phase of the menstrual cycle (Perna et al., 1995c). This could be regarded as a drawback for the model. On the other hand, these findings could be regarded as an argument in favor of the validity of the challenge, because the clinical course of panic disorder is also influenced by hormonal changes. Pregnancy has a marked influence on the occurrence and frequency of panic attacks (George et al., 1987, Cowley and Roy-Byrne, 1989, Villeponteaux et al., 1992, Cohen et al., 1994, Verburg et al., 1994b). The menstrual cycle also appears to have an effect, although disputed, on the clinical course of panic disorder (Breier et al., 1986, Cameron et al., 1988, Stein et al., 1989, Cook et al., 1990, Kaspi et al., 1994).

To assess the reliability of the 35% CO2 challenge, we used a test–retest design, with an interval of 1 week between the two tests. We did not use an air-placebo condition in this study. We made this change in methodology for the following reasons: previous studies have sufficiently shown that placebo effects do not play an important role in 35% CO2 induced panic (Griez et al., 1987, Perna et al., 1994a). The use of an air-placebo condition has never led to any significant findings, neither did it ever influence the conclusion drawn from the results in the carbon dioxide condition. Also, this study presented us with methodological problems concerning the use of an air-placebo condition: subjects would have to be randomized into four groups (CO2 or air first in the first and second challenge), with a consequent loss of statistical power. And, more important, all subjects would know what to expect from the second inhalation at the second visit.

Therefore subjects performed one inhalation of a 35% CO2 mixture on both visits. The hypothesis was that the responses in anxiety on the Visual Analogue Scale for Anxiety (VAS-A) and the Panic Symptom List according to DSM-III-R (PSL-III-R) would be the same on both visits.

Section snippets

Subjects

Thirty panic disorder patients (11 men and 19 women) were included in this study. Twenty-four patients also met criteria for agoraphobia, seven suffered from a comorbid mood disorder (five from major depression and two from dysthymia). Patients were diagnosed according to DSM-III-R criteria (American Psychiatric Association, 1987). Diagnoses were made in consensus by two experienced clinicians. The diagnoses were confirmed using the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-III-R (Spitzer et al.,

Drop-outs

Six patients dropped out after the first test. Five found the first test too frightening to do a second test. One patient had a panic attack in his car while driving home, which he attributed to the inhalation. These six patients were three men and three women, their mean age was 40.0 (S.D.=8.3). Five were agoraphobic, three suffered from a comorbid major depression. Their mean STAI score was 56.0 (S.D.=17.2). Before inhalation, they scored a mean of 38.3 (S.D.=39.3) on the VAS-A and 6.3

Discussion

The 35% CO2 challenge appears to have a good test–retest reliability. Post-CO2 scores on the VAS-A are reliable. PSL-III-R scores post-CO2 and delta-CO2 are also reliable.

The delta-CO2 scores on the VAS-A are unreliable. This seems to be a methodological problem rather than a problem related to the challenge itself. Notably, our results confirm the conclusions from an earlier study (Griez et al., 1990b) that baseline anxiety scores do not explain the level of anxiety induced by the challenge.

References (40)

  • H. Pols et al.

    Alprazolam premedication and 35% carbon dioxide vulnerability in panic patients

    Biological Psychiatry

    (1996)
  • American Psychiatric Association, 1987. DSM-III-R. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. 3rd ed. rev....
  • J.J. Bartko et al.

    On the methods and theory of reliability

    Journal of Nervous Mental Disease

    (1976)
  • Bertani, A., Perna, G., Arancio, C., Caldirola, D., Bellodi, L., 1997. Pharmacological effect of paroxetine, sertraline...
  • A. Breier et al.

    Agoraphobia with panic attacks: Development, diagnostic stability, and course of illness

    Archives of General Psychiatry

    (1986)
  • L.S. Cohen et al.

    Impact of pregnancy on panic disorder: A case series

    Journal of Clinical Psychiatry

    (1994)
  • D.S. Cowley et al.

    Panic disorder during pregnancy

    Journal of Psychosomatic Obstetrics and Gynaecology

    (1989)
  • D.S. Cowley et al.

    The diagnostic utility of lactate sensitivity in panic disorder

    Archives of General Psychiatry

    (1990)
  • De Beurs, E., 1993. Continuous monitoring of panic. In: The Assessment and Treatment of Panic Disorder and Agoraphobia....
  • Fleiss, J.L., 1986. The Design and Analysis of Clinical Experiments. John Hiley and Sons, New...
  • Cited by (0)

    View full text