The association between sports participation, alcohol use and aggression and violence: A systematic review

Abstract

Objectives

To review the current research on alcohol-related violence and sports participation.

Methods

The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines were used to identify relevant studies for inclusion. A search of six databases (EBSCOhost) was conducted.

Results

A total of 6890 studies was were identified in the initial search. Of these, 11 studies met the inclusion criteria. The majority of the studies were from the US (n = 10) and focused on collegiate athletes (n = 7), adolescents (n = 3), professional/former professional athletes (n = 1).

Conclusion

The reviewed research indicates higher rates of alcohol use and violence in athlete populations when compared against non-athlete populations. Masculinity, violent social identity and antisocial norms connected to certain sports stand out as potential factors that may impact the association between sport and violence in athlete populations.

Introduction

While some studies have emphasised sport participation as a possible protective factor against excessive alcohol and other substance use,1, 2, 3 the vast majority of research shows that sport participation, and particularly participation in team sports, is associated with increased rates of hazardous drinking.4, 5, 6, 7, 8 Surprisingly, there has been very little work examining the relationship between alcohol consumption and associated harms – such as accident, violence and health problems – in sporting populations. Most of this research focuses on US collegiate samples,4, 5, 9 and shows that excessive alcohol consumption is associated with a variety of consequences, including, for example, unprotected sex, violence and drink driving.⁴ Much less is known about alcohol-related aggression and violence in athletes, despite anecdotal reports suggesting higher rates of alcohol-related aggression in sports populations. The aim of the present study was to review the existing evidence base on alcohol-related violence and aggression in sport participants.

While there is some contention in this matter, scholars have suggested that the masculine/macho norms and confrontational nature of some sports attracts and/or socialises aggression in those who participate.10, 11 A recent review of general aggression in sport highlighted the high prevalence of on-field violence, but also found that research on off-field violence and antisocial behaviour was sparse.¹² There is, however, some evidence suggesting that participants involved in US collegiate sport and sport-orientated fraternities are more likely to be involved in sexual assaults.¹³ In a multi-university US study,¹⁴ athletes were found to be involved in 19% of all reported sexual assaults on campuses, yet they constituted only 3% of these university populations. In another study of US college athletes, 14% of male team leaders and 11% of team members reported taking advantage of someone sexually as a result of their own substance use, compared to 7.7% of males who did not participate in sports.⁴ Hence there appears to be some connection between sports participation, alcohol use and violence.

Several studies have linked team sport athletes (e.g. football, rugby and soccer) with higher levels of alcohol consumption than individual sports athletes (e.g. track and athletics).15, 16 This connection is likely due to the fact that drinking at a club or collegiate level is very much centred on team socialising and bonding,¹⁵ and further that such events often occur at a favourite bar or licensed clubhouse.17, 18

The difference in alcohol consumption between participants in team and individual sports, however, is not consistent across sports. For example, Ford¹⁹ found that while ice hockey and soccer players reported higher levels of alcohol consumption than any other sports participants, athletes in other team-based sports such as basketball and track reported low levels of consumption. Therefore, the relationship between team sport participation and alcohol use appears to be contingent, to a degree, on type of sport or other contextual factors. This is likely to do with alcohol cultures, norms and expectations that are specific to certain sports, clubs and teams.¹⁵

In addition, it is common for microbreweries and bars to sponsor local teams, and larger breweries and alcohol brands to support professional sports.²⁰ This relationship between alcohol suppliers and sports clubs is often emphasised as many community sports clubs (which are typically run by volunteers and not-for-profit organisations) rely on alcohol sales to raise revenue.²⁰ Accordingly, alcohol and sport are inextricably linked in terms of the social norms and cultures associated with sports, as well as in those of the alcohol industry which funds a variety of sports clubs.

The pervasiveness of alcohol-related violence has been documented in a broad range of studies that have demonstrated links between alcohol consumption and: public violence,21, 22, 23 sex crimes,24, 25, 26 and domestic violence.27, 28, 29 Further, the relationship between alcohol and violence has been documented with reference to many types of violence and in numerous countries. For example, the World Health Organisation³⁰ has estimated that: 80% of juvenile violence in Estonia is associated with alcohol; 33% of perpetrators of domestic violence in Switzerland are intoxicated; and 46% of rapes in Spain are committed by persons under the influence of alcohol.³¹ In Australia, approximately 25% of the population experience alcohol-related verbal abuse annually, 13% feel threatened by an intoxicated person, and 4.5% of those over 14 years of age are physically abused by someone under the influence.³² Thus, the relationship between alcohol and violence appears to cross cultural and national divides.

Given the available evidence, the connections between alcohol and violence,21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32 and between alcohol and sports populations15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20 appear to be relatively strong. As noted above, sports participation may, in some instances, accentuate the relationship between alcohol and violence. Nonetheless, there is scant research directed specifically at alcohol-related violence in the sport context. Against this backdrop, the current review will examine the literature on the association between alcohol and violence in the sport context to clarify the relationships between sport participation, alcohol and violence. Further, the question of whether sport participation in some way moderates the relationship between alcohol and violence, will also be examined.