Abstract
Compulsory drug testing was introduced in 1968 by the International Olympic Committee. Since then, several doping cases have been reported in sports competition world wide. Positive results are based on the detection of prohibited substances, their metabolites and markers in biological (mainly urine) samples supplied by athletes. In some cases, the evidences were not contested and athletes admitted the use of banned substances. However, in other cases, athletes denied the use of doping to enhance performance and claimed to have inadvertently or passively absorbed the drug. Unfortunately, no current accepted analytical method is capable of distinguishing between a sample from a cheater and one from an athlete who was passively exposed to a doping agent.
Athletes’ allegations have included the passive inhalation of drug smoke (e.g. marijuana) or the ingestion of food or products sold as nutritional supplements that contained prohibited substances. In the scientific literature, several studies have been performed to investigate the possibility of an accidental exposure being the reason for the appearance of detectable quantities of banned substances in urine samples. Based on these studies, this article discusses those cases where the athlete’s claims could be possible in generating a positive result in doping control and in which circumstances it would be improbable to happen.
Similar content being viewed by others
Notes
The use of trade names is for product identification purposes only and does not imply endorsement.
References
International Olympic Committee. Prohibited classes of substances and prohibited methods. Lausanne: International Olympic Committee, 2003
International Olympic Committee. The world anti-doping code. Lausanne: International Olympic Committee, 2003
Perez-Reyes M, Di Guiseppi S, Mason AP, et al. Passive inhalation of marihuana smoke and urinary excretion of cannabinoids. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1983; 34(1): 36–41
elSohly AM, Jones AB. Drug testing in the workplace: could a positive test for one of the mandated drugs be for reasons other than illicit use of the drug? J Anal Toxicol 1995; 19: 450–8
Mulé SJ, Lomax P, Gross SJ. Active and realistic passive marijuana exposure tested by three immunoassays and GC/MS in urine. J Anal Toxicol 1988; 12: 113–6
Morland J, Bugge B, Skuterud B, et al. Cannabinoids in blood and urine after passive inhalation of cannabis smoke. J Forensic Sci 1985; 30: 997–1002
Cone EJ, Johnson RE. Contact highs and urinary cannabinoid excretion after passive exposure to marijuana smoke. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1986; 40(3): 247–56
Cone EJ, Yousefnejad D, Hillsgrove MJ, et al. Passive inhalation of cocaine. J Anal Toxicol 1995; 19(6): 399–411
Lippi G, Guidi G. Doping and sport. Minerva Med 1999; 90: 345–57
Struempler RE, Nelson G, Urry FM. A positive cannabinoids workplace drug test following the ingestion of commercially available hemp seed oil. J Anal Toxicol 1997; 21(4): 283–5
Fortner N, Fogerson R, Lindman D, et al. Marijuana-positive urine test results from consumption of hemp seeds in food products. J Anal Toxicol 1997; 21(6): 476–81
Bosy TZ, Cole KA. Consumption and quantitation of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol in commercially available hemp seed oil products. J Anal Toxicol 2000; 24(7): 562–6
Zoller O, Rhyn P, Zimmerli B. High-performance liquid chromatographic determination of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol and the corresponding acid in hemp containing foods with special regard to the fluorescence properties of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol. J Chromatogr A 2000; 872: 101–10
Cone EJ, Johnson RE, Paul BD, et al. Marijuana-laced brownies: behavioral effects, physiologic effects, and urinalysis in humans following ingestion. J Anal Toxicol 1988; 12: 169–75
Leson G, Pless P, Grotenhermen F, et al. Evaluating the impact of hemp food consumption on workplace drug tests. J Anal Toxicol 2000; 25: 691–8
Meadway C, George S, Braithwaite R. Opiate concentrations following the ingestion of poppy seed products: evidence for ‘the poppy seed defence’. Forensic Sci Int 1998; 96: 29–38
elSohly HN, elSohly MA, Stanford DF. Poppy seed ingestion and opiates urinalysis: a closer look. J Anal Toxicol 1990; 14: 308–10
Jackson GF, Saady JJ, Poklis A. Urinary excretion of benzoylecgonine following ingestion of health inca tea. Forensic Sci Int 1991 Jan–Feb; 49(1): 57–64
Jenkins AJ, Llosa T, Montoya I, et al. Identification and quantitation of alkaloids in coca tea. Forensic Sci Int 1996; 77: 179–89
Kicman AT, Cowan DA, Myhre L, et al. Effect on sports drug tests of ingesting meat from steroid (methenolone)-treated livestock. Clin Chem 1994; 40(11): 2084–7
Blanco BS, Paulino CA. Considerações sobre o uso de hormõnios anabolizantes em animais de produção. Rev Bras Toxicol 1996; 9(2): 27–34
Martinez-Navarro JF. Food poisoning related to comsuption of illicit β-agonist in liver. Lancet 1990; 336: 1311
Pulce C, Lamaison D, Keck G, et al. Collective human food poisoning by clenbuterol residues in veal liver. Vet Hum Toxicol 1991; 33(5): 480–1
Ramos F, Silveira MIN. Agonistas β2-adrenérgicos como promotores do crescimento animal. Rev Farm Bioquím Univ Sao Paulo 1997; 33(1): 13–21
Delbeke FT, Van Eenoo P, Thuyne WV, et al. Prohormones and sport. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2003; 1804: 1–7
Schänzer W. Analysis of non-hormonal nutritional supplements for anabolic androgenic-steroids: an international study [online]. Available from URL: http://multimedia.olympic.org/pdf/en_report_324.pdf [Accessed 2003 Jul 1]
De Cock KJS, Delbeke FT, Van Eenoo P, et al. Detection and determination of anabolic steroids in nutritional supplements. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2001; 25: 843–52
Delbeke FT, Debackere M. Urinary concentrations of codeine and morphine after the administration of different codeine preparations in relation to doping analysis. J Pharm Biomed Anal 1991; 9(10–12): 959–64
International Olympic Committee. Updated explanatory note concerning the IOC/WADA. Lausanne: International Olympic Committee, 2003
Cody JT. Enantiomeric composition of amphetamine and methamphetamine derived from the precursor compound famprofazone. Forensic Sci Int 1996; 80: 189–99
Midio AF, Moreau RLM, Silva OA. The possibilities of hair analysis in the determination of involuntary doping in sports. Sports Med 2001; 31(5): 321–4
Acknowledgements
The authors have provided no information on sources of funding or on conflicts of interest directly relevant to the content of this review.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Yonamine, M., Garcia, P.R. & de Moraes Moreau, R.L. Non-Intentional Doping in Sports. Sports Med 34, 697–704 (2004). https://doi.org/10.2165/00007256-200434110-00001
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.2165/00007256-200434110-00001