Skip to main content

Advertisement

Log in

Cooling Athletes before Competition in the Heat

Comparison of Techniques and Practical Considerations

Sports Medicine Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

With the general acceptance that high ambient temperature and humidity have a detrimental effect on performance, the topic of whole-body cooling and sport performance has received considerable attention from sport scientists, particularly in the lead up to the relatively hot Olympic games of 1996 in Atlanta, Georgia, USA, and 2004 in Athens, Greece. This trend is likely to continue as athletes begin to prepare for what will likely be another hot Olympic games in 2008 in Beijing, China. To overcome the reduced exercise capacity associated with the heat, a number of precooling methods have been utilised to cool the body prior to exercise, with the greatest benefits likely associated with prolonged endurance-type exercise. An increase in heat storage capacity following a precooling manoeuvre has been suggested as the primary means of delaying fatigue during endurance exercise performance in the heat; the notion being that the increased heat storage capacity will allow an athlete to complete a greater amount of work before a critical body temperature is reached. However, the specific underlying mechanisms responsible for delaying fatigue during exercise in hot ambient conditions remains unclear. While significant research in this area has been completed in the laboratory setting, few studies utilise performance protocols, and even less address the practical and logistical issues associated with precooling an athlete prior to elite competition in the field. This review addresses evidence supporting the use of a precooling manoeuvre prior to endurance exercise, the potential underlying mechanisms responsible for improved endurance performance following precooling, and the practical issues associated with the use of precooling prior to competition for elite athletes.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Table I

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. The use of trade names is for product identification purposes only and does not imply endorsement.

References

  1. Bazett HC, Scott JC. Effect of baths at different temperatures on oxygen exchange and on circulation. Am J Physiol 1937; 119: 93–110

    Google Scholar 

  2. Bell CR, Provins KA. Effects of high temperature environmental conditions on human performance. J Occup Med 1962; 4: 202–211

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  3. Gold AJ, Zornitzer A. Effect of partial body cooling on man exercising in a hot, dry environment. Aerosp Med 1968; 39 (9): 944–946

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  4. Vaughan JA, Higgins EA, Funkhouser GE. Effects of body thermal state on manual performance. Aerosp Med 1968; 39 (12): 1310–1315

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  5. Webb P, Annis JF. Cooling required to suppress sweating during work. J Appl Physiol 1968; 25 (5): 489–493

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  6. Falls HB, Humphrey LD. Effect of length of cold showers on skin temperatures and exercise heart rate. Res Q 1970; 41 (3): 353–360

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  7. Falls HB, Humphrey LD. Cold water application effects on responses to heat stress during exercise. Res Q 1971; 42 (1): 21–29

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  8. Grether WF. Human performance at elevated environmental temperatures. Aerosp Med 1973; 44 (7): 747–755

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  9. Shvartz E, Saar E, Benor D. Physique and heat tolerance in hot-dry and hot-humid environments. J Appl Physiol 1973; 34 (6): 799–803

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  10. Shvartz E, Saar E, Meyerstein N, et al. Heat acclimatization while wearing vapor-barrier clothing. Aerosp Med 1973; 44 (6): 609–612

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  11. Hartung GH, Myhre LG, Nunneley SA. Physiological effects of cold air inhalation during exercise. Aviat Space Environ Med 1980; 51 (6): 591–594

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  12. Schmidt V, Brack K. Effect of a precooling maneuver on body temperature and exercise performance. J Appl Physiol 1981; 50 (4): 772–778

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  13. Hessemer V, Langusch D, Brack LK, et al. Effect of slightly lowered body temperatures on endurance performance in humans. J Appl Physiol 1984; 57 (6): 1731–1737

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  14. Patton JF, Vogel JA. Effects of acute cold exposure on submaximal endurance performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1984; 16 (5): 494–497

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  15. Geladas N, Banister EW. Effect of cold air inhalation on core temperature in exercising subjects under heat stress. J Appl Physiol 1988: 64 (6): 2381–2387

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  16. Olschewski H, Bruck K. Thermoregulatory, cardiovascular, and muscular factors related to exercise after precooling. J Appl Physiol 1988; 64 (2): 803–811

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  17. Livingstone SD, Nolan RW, Cattroll SW. Heat loss caused by immersing the hands in water. Aviat Space Environ Med 1989; 60 (12): 1166–1171

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  18. Martin DT, Hahn AG, Ryan-Tanner R, et al. Ice jackets are cool [online]. Available from URL: http://www.sportsci.org/jour/9804/dtm.html [Accessed 2006 Jul 11]

  19. Tatterson AJ, Hahn AG, Martin DT, et al. Effects of heat stress on physiological responses and exercise performance in elite cyclists. J Sci Med Sport 2000; 3 (2): 186–193

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. Marino EE. Methods, advantages, and limitations of body cooling for exercise performance. Br J Sports Med 2002; 36 (2): 89–94

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  21. Lee DT, Haymes EM. Exercise duration and thermoregulatory responses after whole body precooling. J Appl Physiol 1995; 79 (6): 1971–1976

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  22. Mitchell JB, McFarlin BK, Dugas JP. The effect of pre-exercise cooling on high intensity running performance in the heat. Int J Sports Med 2003; 24 (2): 118–124

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  23. Bergh U, Hartley H, Landsberg L, et al. Plasma norepinephrine concentration during submaximal and maximal exercise at lowered skin and core temperatures. Acta Physiol Scand 1979; 106 (3): 383–384

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  24. Booth J, Marino F, Ward JJ. Improved running performance in hot humid conditions following whole body precooling. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1997; 29 (7): 943–949

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  25. Gonzalez-Alonso J, Teller C, Andersen SL, et al. Influence of body temperature on the development of fatigue during prolonged exercise in the heat. J Appl Physiol 1999; 86 (3): 1032–1039

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  26. Kay D, Taaffe DR, Marino EE. Whole-body pre-cooling and heat storage during self-paced cycling performance in warm humid conditions. J Sports Sci 1999; 17 (12): 937–944

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  27. Marsh D, Sleivert G. Effect of precooling on high intensity cycling performance. Br J Sports Med 1999; 33 (6): 393–397

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  28. Booth J, Wilsmore BR, Macdonald AD, et al. Whole-body pre-cooling does not alter human muscle metabolism during sub-maximal exercise in the heat. Eur J Appl Physiol 2001; 84 (6): 587–590

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  29. Marino F, Booth J. Whole body cooling by immersion in water at moderate temperatures. J Sci Med Sport 1998; 1 (2): 73–82

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  30. Cotter JD, Sleivert GG, Roberts WS, et al. Effect of pre-cooling, with and without thigh cooling, on strain and endurance exercise performance in the heat. Comp Biochem Physiol A Mol Integr Physiol 2001; 128 (4): 667–677

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  31. Arngrimsson SA, Petitt DS, Stueck MG, et al. Cooling vest worn during active warm-up improves 5-km run performance in the heat. J Appl Physiol 2004; 96 (5): 1867–1874

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. AVAcore Technologies Inc. CoreControl™ [online]. Available from URL: http://www.avacore.com [Accessed 2006 Jul 11]

  33. Yates K, Ryan R, Martin DT, et al. Pre-cooling rowers can improve laboratory 2000m performance in hot-humid conditions. In: Australian Conference of Science and Medicine in Sport; 1996 Oct 11–14; Canberra. Canberra: Sports Medicine Australia, 1996: 370–371

    Google Scholar 

  34. Crowley GC, Garg A, Lohn MS, et al. Effects of cooling the legs on performance in a standard Wingate anaerobic power test. Br J Sports Med 1991; 25 (4): 200–203

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  35. Sleivert GG, Rowlands DS. Physical and physiological factors associated with success in the triathlon. Sports Med 1996; 22 (1): 8–18

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  36. Drust B, Cable NT, Reilly T. Investigation of the effects of the pre-cooling on the physiological responses to soccer-specific intermittent exercise. Eur J Appl Physiol 2000; 81 (1–2): 11–17

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  37. Ulmer HV. Concept of an extracellular regulation of muscular metabolic rate during heavy exercise in humans by psychophysiological feedback. Experientia 1996; 52 (5): 416–420

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  38. St Clair Gibson A, Noakes TD. Evidence for complex system integration and dynamic neural regulation of skeletal muscle recruitment during exercise in humans. Br J Sports Med 2004; 38 (6): 797–806

    Article  Google Scholar 

  39. Lambert EV, St Clair Gibson A, Noakes TD. Complex systems model of fatigue: integrative homoeostatic control of peripheral physiological systems during exercise in humans. Br J Sports Med 2005; 39 (1): 52–62

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. Noakes TD, St Clair Gibson A, Lambert EV. From catastrophe to complexity: a novel model of integrative central neural regulation of effort and fatigue during exercise in humans: summary and conclusions. Br J Sports Med 2005; 39 (2): 120–124

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  41. McCutcheon LJ, Geor RJ, Hinchcliff KW. Effects of prior exercise on muscle metabolism during sprint exercise in horses. J Appl Physiol 1999; 87 (5): 1914–1922

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  42. Gutin B, Stewart K, Lewis S, et al. Oxygen consumption in the first stages of strenuous work as a function of prior exercise. J Sports Med Phys Fitness 1976; 16 (1): 60–65

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  43. Ross A, Leveritt M, Riek S. Neural influences on sprint running: training adaptations and acute responses. Sports Med 2001; 31 (6): 409–425

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. Bishop D. Warm up I: potential mechanisms and the effects of passive warm up on exercise performance. Sports Med 2003; 33 (6): 439–454

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Galloway SD, Maughan RJ. Effects of ambient temperature on the capacity to perform prolonged cycle exercise in man. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1997; 29 (9): 1240–1249

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  46. Tucker R, Rauch L, Harley YX, et al. Impaired exercise performance in the heat is associated with an anticipatory reduction in skeletal muscle recruitment. Pflugers Arch 2004; 448 (4): 422–430

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  47. Saunders AG, Dugas JP, Tucker R, et al. The effects of different air velocities on heat storage and body temperature in humans cycling in a hot, humid environment. Acta Physiol Scand 2005; 183 (3): 241–255

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  48. Marino EE, Lambert MI, Noakes TD. Superior performance of African runners in warm humid but not in cool environmental conditions. J Appl Physiol 2004; 96 (1): 124–130

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  49. Fuller A, Carter RN, Mitchell D. Brain and abdominal temperatures at fatigue in rats exercising in the heat. J Appl Physiol 1998; 84 (3): 877–883

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  50. Cheung SS, McLellan TM. Heat acclimation, aerobic fitness, and hydration effects on tolerance during uncompensable heat stress. J Appl Physiol 1998; 84 (5): 1731–1739

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  51. Febbraio MA, Murton P, Selig SE, et al. Effect of CHO ingestion on exercise metabolism and performance in different ambient temperatures. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1996; 28 (11): 1380–1387

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  52. Kayser B. Exercise starts and ends in the brain. Eur J Appl Physiol 2003; 90 (3–4): 411–419

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. St Clair Gibson A, Baden DA, Lambert MI, et al. The conscious perception of the sensation of fatigue. Sports Med 2003; 33 (3): 167–176

    Article  Google Scholar 

  54. Noakes TD, St Clair Gibson A. Logical limitations to the ‘catastrophe’ models of fatigue during exercise in humans. Br J Sports Med 2004; 38 (5): 648–649

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  55. Cheung SS, Sleivert GG. Multiple triggers for hyperthermic fatigue and exhaustion. Exerc Sport Sci Rev 2004; 32 (3): 100–106

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Nielsen B, Hyldig T, Bidstrup F, et al. Brain activity and fatigue during prolonged exercise in the heat. Pflugers Arch 2001; 442 (1): 41–48

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  57. Nunneley SA, Martin CC, Slauson JW, et al. Changes in regional cerebral metabolism during systemic hyperthermia in humans. J Appl Physiol 2002; 92 (2): 846–851

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. Nybo L, Nielsen B, Blomstrand E, et al. Neurohumoral responses during prolonged exercise in humans. J Appl Physiol 2003; 95 (3): 1125–1131

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  59. Schillings ML, Hoefsloot W, Stegeman DF, et al. Relative contributions of central and peripheral factors to fatigue during a maximal sustained effort. Eur J Appl Physiol 2003; 90 (5–6): 562–568

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. Nybo L, Nielsen B. Hyperthermia and central fatigue during prolonged exercise in humans. J Appl Physiol 2001; 91 (3): 1055–1060

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  61. Febbraio MA. Alterations in energy metabolism during exercise and heat stress. Sports Med 2001; 31 (1): 47–59

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  62. Watson P, Hasegawa H, Roelands B, et al. Acute dopamine/noradrenaline reuptake inhibition enhances human exercise performance in warm, but not temperate conditions. J Physiol 2005; 565 (Pt 3): 873–883

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  63. Robson-Ansley PJ, de Milander L, Collins M, et al. Acute interleukin-6 administration impairs athletic performance in healthy, trained male runners. Can J Appl Physiol 2004; 29 (4): 411–418

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  64. Nybo L, Moller K, Pedersen BK, et al. Association between fatigue and failure to preserve cerebral energy turnover during prolonged exercise. Acta Physiol Scand 2003; 179 (1): 67–74

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  65. Nybo L, Moller K, Volianitis S, et al. Effects of hyperthermia on cerebral blood flow and metabolism during prolonged exercise in humans. J Appl Physiol 2002; 93 (1): 58–64

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Sakurada S, Hales JR. A role for gastrointestinal endotoxins in enhancement of heat tolerance by physical fitness. J Appl Physiol 1998; 84 (1): 207–214

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  67. Davis JM, Bailey SP. Possible mechanisms of central nervous system fatigue during exercise. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1997; 29 (1): 45–57

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  68. Supinski G, Nethery D, Nosek TM, et al. Endotoxin administration alters the force vs. pCa relationship of skeletal muscle fibers. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2000; 278 (4): R891–R896

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  69. Richter EA, Ruderman NB, Gavras H, et al. Muscle glycogenolysis during exercise: dual control by epinephrine and contractions. Am J Physiol 1982; 242 (1): E25–E32

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  70. Febbraio MA, Lambert DL, Starkie RL, et al. Effect of epinephrine on muscle glycogenolysis during exercise in trained men. J Appl Physiol 1998; 84 (2): 465–470

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  71. Febbraio MA, Snow RJ, Stathis CG, et al. Blunting the rise in body temperature reduces muscle glycogenolysis during exercise in humans. Exp Physiol 1996; 81 (4): 685–693

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  72. Nielsen B, Savard G, Richter EA, et al. Muscle blood flow and muscle metabolism during exercise and heat stress. J Appl Physiol 1990; 69 (3): 1040–1046

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  73. Parkin JM, Carey MF, Zhao S, et al. Effect of ambient temperature on human skeletal muscle metabolism during fatiguing submaximal exercise. J Appl Physiol 1999; 86 (3): 902–908

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

No sources of funding were used to assist in the preparation of this review. The authors have no conflicts of interest that are directly relevant to the content of this review.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Quod, M.J., Martin, D.T. & Laursen, P.B. Cooling Athletes before Competition in the Heat. Sports Med 36, 671–682 (2006). https://doi.org/10.2165/00007256-200636080-00004

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.2165/00007256-200636080-00004

Keywords

Navigation